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sQ1=new Array();sQ1[1]=new Array("tubeprosthesis.speciality.htm","12. Upper Gastrointestinal dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion - Specialty and Grade of Endoscopist","","12. Upper Gastrointestinal Dilation and Tubal Prosthesis Insertion INTRODUCTION PROCEDURES AND PATIENTS SPECIALTY AND GRADE OF ENDOSCOPIST ANALGESIA AND ANAESTHESIA METHODS OF DIALTION, COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  SPECIALTY AND GRADE OF ENDOSCOPIST Key points 76% of procedures were performed by specialised upper GI physicians or surgeons. A rigid oesophagoscope was used in 39% of thoracic and 92% of ENT cases. In 84% of cases a consultant endoscopist was present. Physicians or surgeons who were specialised in upper GI work did 76% (2,211/2,925) of all procedures. The other surgeons were general 6% (164/2,925), thoracic 7% (211/2,925) or ENT 2% (48/2,925) surgeons. Most of the other physicians were general physicians; one was a paediatrician, yet the patient was 56 years old. All the cases done by general practitioners were done within a hospital environment. Table 69. Procedure type by specialty of most senior endoscopist  Flexible Rigid Other Total (%) Dilation Dilation & tubal prosthesis Insertion of tubal prosthesis Dilation Dilation & tubal prosthesis Other Specialised physician 1,176 39 268 8 1 5 1,497 (51) General physician 125 3 29 0 0 1 158 (5) Specialised surgeon 560 15 125 8 3 3 714 (24) General surgeon 126 2 30 6 0 0 164 (6) Radiologist 61 2 24 0 1 2 90 (3) General practitioner 22 0 1 0 0 0 23 (1) Nurse endoscopist 9 1 0 0 0 0 10 (<1) Other 7 0 0 1 1 0 9 (<1) Thoracic surgeon 114 1 13 80 3 0 211 (7) ENT surgeon 1 0 3 44 0 0 48 (2) Paediatrician 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 (<1) Sub-total 2,202 63 493 147 9 11 2,925 Not answered 15 1 3 1 0 0 20 (1) Total 2,217 64 496 148 9 11 2,945 Table 69 illustrates that a rigid endoscope was used in 39% (83/211) of thoracic cases and 92% (44/48) of ENT cases. This perhaps reflects a difference in surgical subspecialty training for specific endoscopic procedures. Table 70. Grade of the most senior endoscopist Grade of most senior endoscopist Total (%) Consultant 2,453 (84) Associate specialist 73 (2) Staff grade 63 (2) Clinical assistant/hospital practitioner 17 (<1) General practitioner 13 (<1) Nurse endoscopist 11 (<1) SpR-year 3 or over 243 (8) SpR-year 1/2 41 (1) SHO 9 (<1) Other 4 (<1) Sub-total 2,927 Not answered 18 (<1) Total 2,945 A consultant was the most senior endoscopist for 84% (2,453/2,927) of these procedures. An SpR-year 1/2 would not appear to be an appropriate grade for upper GI dilation or insertion of tubal prosthesis; it is unlikely that they would have had sufficient experience to perform these procedures unsupervised. However, NCEPOD does not know their experience before starting their SpR training, which, for those coming from SAS to training grades, can sometimes be considerable. 41 cases were done by SpRs of year 1/2, 35 were flexible endoscopic dilation, 4 were flexible endoscopic insertion of tubal prosthesis and 2 were rigid endoscopic dilation. An unsupervised SHO should never be the most senior endoscopist for upper GI dilation or insertion of tubal prosthesis. Nine cases were undertaken by SHOs. Of particular concern was that seven of the nine were rigid endoscopic dilations that were done by surgical SHOs. Of the remainder, one was a flexible endoscopic dilation and one a flexible endoscopic insertion of a tubal prosthesis. Consultants should ensure that all doctors who are under their supervision have the training and experience to perform the procedures that they are undertaking. (back to top)  ");sQ1[2]=new Array("acknowledge.main.htm","Acknowledgements","","Acknowledge- ments  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This is the sixteenth report published by NCEPOD and, as in previous years, could not have been achieved without the support and co-operation of a wide range of individuals and organisations. Our particular thanks go to the following: • The local reporters in each hospital who work tirelessly to ensure full participation by their organisation • All those clinicians who contributed to the study by completing questionnaires • The advisors whose names are listed in ' Appendix E Advisors ' in the appendices section • The organisations who provide the funding to cover the cost of the Enquiry who are listed here: National Institute for Clinical Excellence Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety (Northern Ireland) States of Guernsey Board of Health Department of Health and Social Security, Isle of Man Government Aspen Healthcare Benenden Hospital BMI Healthcare BUPA Capio Health Care UK Covenant Healthcare Ltd Cromwell Hospital Fairfield Independent Hospital HCA International Ltd Hospital of St John & St Elizabeth King Edward VII Hospital King Edward VII’s Hospital Sister Agnes McIndoe Surgical Centre Mount Alvernia Hospital North Wales Medical Centre Nuffield Hospitals St Anthony’s Hospital St Joseph’s Hospital The Foscote Private Hospital The Heart Hospital The Horder Centre The Hospital Management Trust The London Clinic The New Victoria Hospital The Orchard Hospital The Spencer Wing The steering group, clinical co-ordinators and chief executive would like to record their appreciation of the hard work of the NCEPOD staff: Malyun Ali, Philip Brown, Marisa Cullinane, Steven Dowling, Dolores Jarman, Michelle Schubert and Donna Weyman. This work was undertaken by NCEPOD, which received the majority of its funding from the National Institute for Clinical Excellence. The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Institute. (back to top)  ");sQ1[3]=new Array("appendices.a.htm","Appendix A","","Appendices A. Glossary B. Abbreviations C. Questionnaires D. Deaths reported E. Advisors  APPENDIX A. GLOSSARY American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) classification of physical status ASA 1: A normal healthy patient. ASA 2: A patient with mild systemic disease. ASA 3: A patient with severe systemic disease. ASA 4: A patient with severe systemic disease that is a constant threat to life. ASA 5: A moribund patient who is not expected to survive without the operation. ASA 6: A declared brain-dead patient whose organs are being removed for donor purposes. Childs-Pugh classification A classification (A,B,C) used to determine the severity of liver cirrhosis based on physiological factors. Category Encephalopathy Ascites Bilirubin (micro mol.1-1) Albumin (micro mol.1-1) INR A  0 0 <34 >35 <1.3 B  I / I I Mild / moderate 34-51 28-35 1.3-1.5 C  I / I V Severe >51 <28 >1.5 Classification of operation (NCEPOD definition) EMERGENCY: Immediate life-saving operation, resuscitation, simultaneous with surgical treatment (e.g. trauma, ruptured aortic aneurysm). Operation usually within one hour. URGENT: Operation as soon as possible after resuscitation (e.g. irreducible hernia, intussusception, oesophageal atresia, intestinal obstruction, major fractures). Operation within 24 hours. SCHEDULED: An early operation but not immediately life-saving (e.g. malignancy). Operation usually within three weeks. ELECTIVE: Operation at a time to suit both patient and surgeon (e.g. cholecystectomy, joint replacement). (back to top)  ");sQ1[4]=new Array("appendices.b.htm","Appendix B","","Appendices A. Glossary B. Abbreviations C. Questionnaires D. Deaths reported E. Advisors  APPENDIX B. ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviation ASA American Society of Anesthesiologists BMA British Medical Association BSG British Society of Gastroenterology CCF Chronic Cardiac Failure COPD Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease CPD Continuing Professional Development CT Computed Tomography CVA Cerebrovascular Accident (stroke) CVP Central Venous Pressure DGH District General Hospital DPA Data Protection Act ECG Electrocardiogram ERCP Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography GA General Anaesthetic GI Gastrointestinal GMC General Medical Council GP General Practitioner HES Hospital Episode Statistics HDU High Dependency Unit ICU Intensive Care Unit INR International Normalised Ratio IPPV Intermittent Positive Pressure Ventilation IV Intraveneous LA Local Anaesthetic LV Left Ventricular MCCD Medical Certificate of Cause of Death ME Medical Examiner (proposed as part of coroner reforms) MI Myocardial Infarction MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging NHS National Health Service NICE National Institute for Clinical Excellence NSAID Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug OGD Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy ONS Office of National Statistics OPCS Office of Population, Census and Surveys PAS Patient Administration System PEG Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastrostomy SAC Specialist Advisory Committee SHO Senior House Officer SpR Specialist Registrar StHA Strategic Health Authority TIA Transient Ischaemic Attack (back to top)  ");sQ1[5]=new Array("appendices.c.htm","Appendices C","","Appendices A. Glossary B. Abbreviations C. Questionnaires D. Deaths reported E. Advisors  QUESTIONNAIRES Click on the links below to access and print the questionnaires (PDF format). Endoscopic histopathology questionnaire assessment form Endoscopy questionnaire assessment form Autopsy questionnaire assessment form Oesophageal dilation and tubal prosthesis study Endoscopy unit questionnaire GI therapeutic endoscopy study  ");sQ1[6]=new Array("appendices.d.htm","Appendix D","","Appendices A. Glossary B. Abbreviations C. Questionnaires D. Deaths reported Introduction Data collection Data analysis Overview of data received Comparison of death data from NCEPOD and hospital episode statistics Future collection of data on all inpatient deaths E. Advisors  APPENDIX D. DEATHS REPORTED TO NCEPOD INTRODUCTION (back to top) Prior to 1 April 2002, NCEPOD collected data on deaths occurring within 30 days of a surgical procedure performed by a surgeon or gynaecologist. These data acted as a sample pool from which to select study cases. However, since 1 April 2002, the remit of NCEPOD has been extended to include medical as well as surgical deaths, regardless of whether a procedure was performed. So for the first time since the inception of NCEPOD, data were requested on ALL inpatient deaths regardless of length of stay in hospital. This dataset then acted as a sample pool from which to identify the cases of GI therapeutic endoscopy relevant to this study. The extension to the dataset resulted in a greater than tenfold increase in the number of deaths reported to NCEPOD on an annual basis and the sample endoscopy cases selected for this study represented only a small proportion of the data. DATA COLLECTION (back to top) The data presented in this chapter relates to all inpatient deaths occurring between 1 April 2002 and 31 March 2003. Data were reported from all acute NHS Trusts in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and Primary Care Trusts where appropriate. Data were also reported from Guernsey, the Isle of Man, the independent sector and the Defence Secondary Care Agency. In each hospital a nominated member of staff acts as a local link between the hospital and NCEPOD and is known as the NCEPOD local reporter. A member of the clinical governance, audit or information department most commonly fills the role as the data collection requirements of NCEPOD have evolved and the use of electronic data increased. Data on inpatient deaths was, in the majority, submitted on a password-protected spreadsheet, for which a template was provided. Whilst most hospitals were able to meet this request, in fact some found it easier than the previous data selection of 30 day deaths as no filtering was required, a small proportion of hospitals were unable to generate the information from their patient administration system (PAS). In such cases, a paper form was completed for each death. As full electronic submission was a new process for NCEPOD some initial difficulties were to be expected. However, even after one year it was extraordinary that some hospitals were not able to provide basic information on patients that had died in hospital either electronically or manually. DATA ANALYSIS (back to top) Exclusions Unlike many previous NCEPOD reports, the criteria by which cases were excluded were minimal. Previously cases would have been excluded if the procedure was minor such as the insertion of an intravenous infusion or if a physician performed it. For the first time no such exclusions were made. However, only data returned before the deadline of 31 July 2003 were included. Cleaning Once data collection had closed, all data in the database were cleaned to ensure that the data in each field was of the same format and that date fields such as date of birth, date of admission and date of death were all in the correct order, e.g. date of procedure was after date of birth and before date of death, and procedure codes were held in the same way as the Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) data, to make comparisons easier. All duplicate records were removed. OVERVIEW OF DATA RECEIVED (back to top) Figure 22. Numbers of records received (inpatient deaths 2002/03) This year saw a dramatic increase in the percentage of duplicate records submitted; 13% compared with approximately 1% last year (Figure 22). The main reason for this, which had not been predicted, was the ability to provide cumulative submissions with updated records during the year. As the PAS records became more complete, data were re-submitted to replace the record held. Duplicate records were accepted initially to ensure a more accurate dataset, only being deleted once the dataset was complete. The percentage of data returned after the deadline was very similar to last year: 0.5% compared with 0.4%. Regional spread Since the introduction of Strategic Health Authorities (StHA) the previous regional boundaries used by NCEPOD no longer apply. NCEPOD’s current database does not facilitate the display of deaths by StHA therefore Table 83 shows the number of deaths reported to NCEPOD by country or sector. Table 83. Number (%) of inpatient deaths by region Region 2002 - 03 n=243,318 (%) 2001 - 02 n=20,130 (%) England 221,100 (91) 18,342 (91) Wales 14,929 (6) 1,093 (5) Northern Ireland 4,902 (2) 436 (2) Guernsey 319 (<1) 22 (<1) Jersey No cases reported 16 (<1) Isle of Man 382 (<1) 31 (<1) Defence Secondary Care Agency 0 (0) 0 (0) Independent 1,686 (0.7) 190 (0.9) Interestingly, it can be seen from Table 83 that despite the enormous increase in the total number of deaths recorded by NCEPOD, the percentage spread has changed very little, indicating a consistent return of data from hospitals. Completeness of data Figure 23. Completeness of data returned The dataset was reviewed to determine how well fields were completed and the results are displayed in Figure 23. Dates of birth and dates of death were obtained for all patients, as these were required fields. The hospital casenote number was absent in less than 1% (105/243,318) of records compared with the NHS number that was absent in 15% (36,573/243,318), although these include the majority of cases from the independent sector who do not use an NHS number routinely. Of the diagnosis fields, primary diagnosis was absent in less than 1% (199/243,318) of the cases compared with first subsidiary (secondary) diagnosis, which was absent 18% (43,377/243,318) of the time. The sex of the patient could not be supplied in 8 (<1%) of the cases and the date of admission in 47 (<1%). Age and sex As the new remit included all deaths it was anticipated that a slight reduction in the mean age of patients would have been seen this year. However, despite the dataset being more than ten times larger, with a median (range) age of 80 (<1 to 109) years, the age distribution are comparable with those reported in previous NCEPOD reports (Figure 24). Figure 24. Distribution of age and sex (Inpatient deaths 2002/03) Duration between admission and death It can be seen from Figure 25 that more patients died during the first three days following admission than on any subsequent three-day period. Whilst that has been seen in previous NCEPOD reports following surgery, it is interesting to note that these data were similar regardless of whether a procedure was performed or not. It is likely therefore that this simply reflects the fact that many patients admitted to hospital, especially for no procedure, are extremely ill. Figure 25. The duration between admission to hospital and death for all patients Final primary diagnosis Figure 26. Ten most common final primary diagnoses Figure 26 displays the most common primary diagnoses for inpatient deaths. Procedures performed For the dataset, we requested that the last six procedures prior to death be recorded. Of the 243,318 cases, 69,536 (29%) patients had at least one procedure performed. However, where data on procedures were not supplied it is not possible to state for certain that a procedure was not performed, simply that the data were not available. COMPARISON OF DEATH DATA FROM NCEPOD AND HOSPITAL EPISODE STATISTICS (back to top) NCEPOD has previously been involved with comparative studies between the data submitted to NCEPOD and the data submitted to HES. These studies have shown inconsistent differences between the two datasets in reference to the number of deaths reported to each from the same Trusts. However, such comparisons have always been performed on specifically filtered data e.g. deaths within 30 days of a surgical procedure and any difference in definitions between the two datasets would automatically introduce errors. Therefore, as NCEPOD had data on all inpatient deaths for the 2002-03 data year, it was felt to be a more robust dataset with which to compare the HES dataset of the same year. However, instead of comparing the total number of deaths reported to each dataset by the same Trust, both datasets were sampled for cases of GI therapeutic endoscopy to determine whether by sampling directly from HES, the same sample group, as used in this report, would have been identified. The HES dataset for all inpatient deaths in England NHS Trusts during 1 April 2002 to 31 March 2003 was obtained by NCEPOD following approval by the Department of Health’s Security and Confidentiality Advisory Group. To ensure an accurate comparison only acute English NHS Trusts were selected from the NCEPOD and the HES datasets. This gave a total of 213,855 records from NCEPOD and a total of 262,293 records from HES. Both datasets were then sampled for the last therapeutic gastrointestinal endoscopy performed within 30 days of death, using the OPCS codes defined in the chapter outlining the study method. Matching of the two sets of sample cases was then performed over a number of stages, described below. Whilst the ideal match would be based on a number of fields, the more fields added to match on, the more likely there would have not been a match due to slight differences in the data available and missing data. The method adopted was to match initially on only NHS number and casenote number and then to manually compare the data to confirm the matched status by looking at the remaining fields. Stage 1 Cases were matched if both the NHS number and the casenote numbers were identical. Stage 2 Cases were matched on NHS number alone. These were then checked manually to ensure the data in the other fields confirmed the match. Stage 3 The remaining unmatched samples from each dataset were compared with all the non-sample cases in the opposing dataset to determine if a match was not being found because it had not been identified as a sample case but was recorded as a death. Stage 4 All remaining samples that had not been matched to a sample case or to a death record were reviewed individually. Matching was attempted using date of birth, date of death and date of admission and comparing all fields in any matches to identify simple reasons why the cases had not matched, e.g. NHS number not available, casenote number was different, unavailable or had an additional letter in one dataset and the date of admission was different by one day. In such a case, the source hospital was checked to ensure that they matched and all fields were compared. If the records matched on hospital plus three other dates from birth, admission, death and procedure they were granted as matching. Figure 27 provides an overview of the results. Figure 27. Overview of the samples obtained from comparing the NCEPOD and HES datasets Of the 2,196 samples that matched, only 30 did not have the same type of endoscopy for the final endoscopic procedure e.g. one was upper GI and one was lower GI. Only 61 did not have identical codes but were the same type of procedure e.g. PEG instead of upper GI, which was a common difference in coding. Whilst an acceptable level of matching was found, the most common reasons for cases not matching were due to simple, yet important differences in the datasets. Often casenote numbers/NHS numbers were supplied in one dataset and not the other. More worryingly was that when the NHS number was not supplied, matching often failed because the casenote number was completely different, even though the cases were from the same hospital and were identical in every other way. The most important points of concern to highlight from this analysis are that firstly, in 899 of the 970 unmatched NCEPOD samples the cases had been reported to HES but endoscopy procedure codes had not been provided. This may indicate that hospitals had been more diligent in ensuring that endoscopic cases were reported to NCEPOD; to check this, the analysis will need to be repeated using an unrelated sample group. However, it may also indicate that the HES data were cleaner. The data in HES are updated regularly throughout the year, which may mean that incorrect procedure codes had been removed. Secondly, in 235 of 435 cases reported to HES, the death was not reported to NCEPOD at all. These cases will need to be analysed in more detail to identify why this discrepancy occurred and relay this information back to Trusts so that we can help ensure the robustness of future datasets. It can be seen from these data that neither reporting system is perfect. However, more deaths were reported to HES than to NCEPOD and only 71 records in the NCEPOD dataset could not be found in the HES data, which is an encouraging finding that will hopefully be consistent when the analysis is repeated with a different sample group. If NCEPOD had used the HES dataset as the sample pool then a significant sample would have been identified and could have been used for the study. The major concern is that of obtaining the data from HES. The data used in this exercise were not available until eight months after the end of the 2002-03 financial year. It would have been hard to expect a clinician to complete a questionnaire on a patient that they may have seen up to 20 months previously. However, with the advent of the new National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT) system for hospitals it is hoped that in time data transfer will become quicker and more easily available and identification of problems in the datasets now can only work to aid that process. FUTURE COLLECTION OF DATA ON ALL INPATIENT DEATHS (back to top) All data held by NCEPOD is done so with a firm respect and compliance with confidentiality laws, even though regulations such as the Data Protection Act (DPA) 19981 do not apply to data from deceased patients, NCEPOD applies the same policy to all patient data held. As the third principle of the DPA 1998 states that ‘data collected should be relevant to the purpose for which it is being collected and the quantity collected should be appropriate’ it has been decided that collection of data on all inpatient deaths should cease. NCEPOD will utilise alternative sampling methods for future studies. One method, and the initial approach, will be to request that hospitals sample directly from their patient administration system (PAS) and identify information relevant only to a particular study. A second option will be for NCEPOD to continue to work with the Department of Health’s Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) to identify what and why discrepancies between the two datasets occur so that in future NCEPOD may sample directly from HES. Due to the changing nature of NCEPOD studies it is no longer appropriate to routinely collect data on deaths occurring in hospitals and therefore on 1 April 2004 NCEPOD ceased collection of this dataset. 1 Data Protection Act 1998 – Principles. Information Commissioner’s Office, 1998. http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/80029--l.htm#sch1ptI (back to top)  ");sQ1[7]=new Array("appendices.e.htm","Appendix E","","Appendices A. Glossary B. Abbreviations C. Questionnaires D. Deaths reported E. Advisors  APPENDIX E. ADVISORS A C Bateman Consultant Histopathologist                   Southampton University Hospitals NHS Trust I D Botterill Consultant in General Surgery & Coloproctology The Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust M G Bramble Consultant Gastroenterologist South Tees Hospitals NHS Trust D Campbell Senior Nurse - Gastroenterology South Devon Healthcare NHS Trust P Evans General Practitioner Titchfield, Hampshire P D Fairclough Consultant Gastroenterologist Barts and the London NHS Trust M D Hellier Consultant Physician/Gastroenterologist Swindon & Marlborough NHS Trust R J Mawer Consultant Anaesthetist Royal Cornwall Hospitals NHS Trust K McCarthy Consultant Histopathologist Gloucestershire Hospitals NHS Trust R McMahon Consultant Histopathologist Central Manchester and Manchester Children's University Hospitals NHS Trust A Mee Consultant Physician/Gastroenterologist Royal Berkshire and Battle Hospitals NHS Trust K Palmer Consultant Gastroenterologist Western General Hospital, Edinburgh A B Price Consultant Histopathologist North West London Hospitals NHS Trust M H Robinson Consultant Colorectal Surgeon Queen's Medical Centre Nottingham Hospitals NHS Trust R M Slater Consultant Anaesthetist Central Manchester and Manchester Children's University Hospitals NHS Trust E T Swarbrick Consultant Physician/Gastroenterologist The Royal Wolverhampton Hospitals NHS Trust J Tillett Endoscopy Unit Manager Cardiff and Vale NHS Trust A Wyman Consultant Surgeon Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust (back to top)  ");sQ1[8]=new Array("data.denominator.htm","3. Data Overview - Denominator Data","","3. Data Overview INTRODUCTION HOSPITAL PARTICIPATION OVERVIEW OF COLLECTED DATA DENOMINATOR DATA GI therapeutic endoscopies Upper GI dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  DENOMINATOR DATA (NATIONALLY AVAILABLE) GI therapeutic endoscopies (back to top) Approximately 2,400 sample cases were expected. This was based on Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) for the year 1999-2000 which reported just over 90,000 therapeutic endoscopies in the NHS in England, and the study designers estimating a mortality rate of approximately 2% for upper and lower GI procedures and 5% for ERCP and PEG procedures. For comparative purposes, the total number of GI therapeutic endoscopies performed in NHS hospitals in England, Wales and Northern Ireland in the year 2002-2003 is summarised in Table 5. These data were provided by HES (England), the Patient Episode Database for Wales, and the Department of Health Social Services and Public Safety (Northern Ireland)2. No denominator data was available for non-NHS hospitals. These data include procedures listed within the last 12 and last four procedures within an episode for England and Northern Ireland respectively, and any mention of a procedure within the last hospital episode in Wales. Table 5. The total number of finished consultant episodes in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, 2002 – 2003 Procedure type England (last 12 procedures) Wales (any mention of procedure) Northern Ireland (last 4 procedures) PEG 16,648 1,453 75 ERCP 23,606 1,343 20 Upper GI 47,931 2,569 129 Lower GI 40,378 2,256 8 Total 128,563 7,621 232 Upper GI dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion (back to top) The total numbers of upper GI dilations and tubal prosthesis insertions performed over the three month period between 1 January and 31 March 2003 are shown in Table 6. These data include procedures performed in children. The number of procedures reported to NCEPOD represents less than 72% (2,945/4,088) of those reported to HES, the Patient Episode Database for Wales and the Department of Social Services and Public Safety2 . The denominator figure may be higher due to the inclusion of procedures that NCEPOD excluded, i.e. radiological procedures and procedures performed on children. Table 6. Upper GI dilation procedures between 1 January and 31 March 2003 England (last 12 procedures) Wales (any mention of procedure) Northern Ireland (last 4 procedures) Non-NHS Total Denominator data 3,669 264 155 Not available *4,088 NCEPOD data 2,466 189 78 212 2,945 * Excludes non-NHS data which are unavailable (back to top)  ");sQ1[9]=new Array("data.hospitalparticipation.htm","3. Data Overview - Hospital Participation","","3. Data Overview INTRODUCTION HOSPITAL PARTICIPATION GI therapeutic endoscopies Upper GI dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion Organisational questionnaire OVERVIEW OF COLLECTED DATA DENOMINATOR DATA CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  HOSPITAL PARTICIPATION GI therapeutic endoscopies (back to top) A total of 252 hospitals and 11 non-NHS hospitals participated in the endoscopy study (Table 2). Participation is defined as ‘a hospital that submitted at least one clinical questionnaire’. Non-NHS hospitals include the independent sector and hospitals in Guernsey and the Isle of Man. 20 hospitals, which were expected to participate as at least one sample case had been identified from the death data (Appendix D), failed to return any questionnaires. Many did not provide a reason for non-return but where indicated, reasons included “casenotes unavailable”, “correct physician could not be identified” and “physician who performed the procedures has left”. Of the hospitals NCEPOD identified who should have participated, 93% of hospitals returned at least one questionnaire. Table 2. Number of NHS and non-NHS hospitals participating in data collection Hospital type Did participate (%) Did not participate (%) Total NHS 252 (93) 19 (7) 271 Non-NHS 11 (92) 1 (8) 12 Total 263 20 283 Although invited to take part in the study, no primary care centres participated as no therapeutic endoscopy-related deaths in primary care were reported during this period. Upper GI dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion (back to top) 259 hospitals submitted questionnaires on upper GI dilations and tubal prosthesis insertions performed, regardless of outcome. The exact potential sample size was difficult to determine as the local reporters were relied upon to identify the cases to be included and NCEPOD had no way of checking this. Organisational questionnaire (back to top) 194 organisational questionnaires were returned. This was comprised of 174 participating hospitals and a further 20 hospitals, from which no endoscopy related deaths were reported, also submitted an organisational questionnaire.   ");sQ1[10]=new Array("data.intro.htm","3. Data Overview - Introduction","","3. Data Overview INTRODUCTION HOSPITAL PARTICIPATION OVERVIEW OF COLLECTED DATA DENOMINATOR DATA CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  3. DATA OVERVIEW INTRODUCTION Referral to most gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy units falls into three main categories: open access, outpatient and urgent inpatients. Open access and outpatient referrals, of which there are approximately 530,0001, account for much of the workload and are mostly diagnostic. Of these, health episode statistics2 indicate that approximately 136,416 GI therapeutic endoscopies were performed during inpatient admissions in England, Wales and Northern Ireland in the year 2002-2003.  ");sQ1[11]=new Array("data.overview.htm","3. Data Overview - Overview of Collected Data","","3. Data Overview INTRODUCTION HOSPITAL PARTICIPATION OVERVIEW OF COLLECTED DATA GI therapeutic endoscopies Upper GI dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion DENOMINATOR DATA CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  OVERVIEW OF COLLECTED DATA GI therapeutic endoscopies (back to top) An overview of the data collected on GI therapeutic endoscopies is presented in Figure 1. Figure 1. An overview of the data collected on GI therapeutic endoscopies The upper GI data are presented in the chapter on oesophagogastroduodenoscopy (OGD) and the data on percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) are contained in separate chapters. No specific analysis of the lower GI cases have been undertaken due to the small sample size. Exclusions 3,853 cases were identified as sample cases from the death data received from hospitals. Of these, just over half (2,035) were excluded. As seen in Figure 1, 620 cases were excluded as the clinician responsible for performing the endoscopy had already completed three questionnaires. In many hospitals, the majority of endoscopies were performed by one or more endoscopists and therefore the limitation to three questionnaires per clinician, whilst reducing the workload of the clinicians involved, has resulted in a potential 16% (620/3,853) reduction in the sample size for analysis. 520 cases did not fall within the sampling frame as the endoscopy was carried out at another hospital, the patient died at another hospital, duplicate deaths were reported to NCEPOD, or the procedure was miscoded. Of these excluded cases miscoding resulted in 298 sample cases being excluded, either because an endoscopy was not performed, or the endoscopy was a diagnostic procedure. This once again highlights errors in hospital coding for which concern was raised in the 2001 NCEPOD report3 and which severely limits its utility. Return rate A questionnaire was not returned for 33% (895/2,713) of the sampled cases eligible for inclusion (i.e. excluding those not within the sampling frame or exclusion due to limitation to three/clinician). This reflects a similar non-response rate to the first NCEPOD report in 19904 where approximately 30% of questionnaires were not returned by surgeons and anaesthetists. This fell to 12% in 2002 and it is hoped that as physicians become more involved with NCEPOD studies, a better response will be achieved. The reasons for non-return are illustrated in Figure 2. Despite prior notification of the study and reminders, no reason was given for 65% (583/895) of unreturned questionnaires. This may be attributed to the fact that the clinician to whom the questionnaire was sent was often not the clinician who performed the endoscopy, with the result that questionnaires were passed internally and could not be traced. In 8% (72/895) of cases, the clinician who performed the endoscopy could not be identified. Equally concerning is that in an additional 8% (73/895) of cases, questionnaires were not returned due to problems in locating or retrieving patient records. In only ten cases (1%) did the clinician refuse to complete the questionnaire, six of these citing lack of time and pressures of work as the reason. Figure 2. Reasons for non-return of questionnaires Demographics 73% (1,320/1,818) of the cases were over the age of 70 years (Table 3) and the median age of patients undergoing GI therapeutic endoscopies was 78 years. Table 3. Age by procedure type  Procedure type  Age PEG ERCP Upper GI Lower GI Total 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99 0 0 4 4 16 36 71 203 309 76 1 0 0 2 1 12 27 76 93 25 1 1 1 25 62 93 133 200 236 57 0 0 0 1 0 4 3 15 25 5 2 1 5 32 79 145 234 494 663 163 Median age 80 79 74 81 78 Total 719 237 809 53 1,818 Slightly more males than females were included in the sample (Table 4). Table 4. Sex by procedure type  Procedure type  Sex PEG ERCP Upper GI Lower GI Total Female 327 120 324 23 794 Male 392 117 485 30 1,024 Total 719 237 809 53 1,818 Data quality The 2003 NCEPOD report, ‘Who Operates When? II’5, highlighted ASA status and grade of clinician as being poorly completed and recommended that hospitals implement systems to record these data. Encouragingly, in this study 94% (1,709/1,818) of cases reported an American Society of Anaesthesiologists (ASA) status and 98% (1,773/1,818) completed the grade of the senior endoscopist. This is a commendable improvement! Upper GI dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion (back to top) As shown in Figure 3, 3,021 upper GI dilations and tubal prosthesis insertion were reported to NCEPOD. 3% (76/3,021) were excluded as they related to procedures performed on children or were performed under radiological guidance, without endoscopy. Figure 3. An overview of the data collected on upper GI dilations and tubal prosthesis insertions (back to top)  ");sQ1[12]=new Array("data.references.htm","3. Data Overview - References","","3. Data Overview INTRODUCTION HOSPITAL PARTICIPATION OVERVIEW OF COLLECTED DATA DENOMINATOR DATA CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 BSG pers comm 2 Hospital Episode Statistics, Table 10 (Total operations) NHS Hospitals, England, 2002-2003, Department of Health. Patient Episode Database for Wales, Health Solutions Wales. Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety. 3 Changing the way we operate. The 2001 Report of the National Confidential Enquiry into Perioperative Deaths. NCEPOD. London, 2001. www.ncepod.org.uk/2001.htm 4 The Report of the National Confidential Enquiry into Perioperative Deaths 1990. NCEPOD. London, 1990 5 Who Operates When? II. The 2003 Report of the National Confidential Enquiry into Perioperative Deaths. NCEPOD. London, 2003. www.ncepod.org.uk/2003.htm   ");sQ1[13]=new Array("ercp.complications.htm","10. ERCP - Complications and Death","","10. Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio- pancreatography INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE THE PROCEDURE THE ENDOSCOPIST COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH Critical incidents Postoperative complications Death RECOMMENDATION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH Critical incidents (back to top) Critical incidents during ERCP procedures were reported in 9% (19/221) of cases (Table 46). However, it is suspected that critical incidents during the procedure were under-reported. Hypotension and tachycardia may reflect pre-procedural pathology such as pancreatitis or septicaemia, but the risk of hypotension should be minimised by optimising the patient’s condition before endoscopy. Tachycardia may be associated with the use of anticholinergic agents to inhibit peristalsis during the procedure. Hypoxaemia should be preventable in most patients, all of whom should receive supplemental oxygen. Table 46. Critical incidents during therapeutic ERCP (answers may be multiple) Critical incident Total n = 221 Hypotension (systolic less than or equal to 100 mmHg) 7 Tachycardia (greater than or equal to 100 beats/min) 6 Hypoxaemia (SpO2 less than or equal to 90%) 5 Respiratory arrest 2 Cardiac arrest 1 Pulmonary aspiration 1 Local haemorrhage 1 Other 3 Total 26 None 202 Not answered 16 Postoperative complications (back to top) Table 47. Complications in the 30 days after therapeutic ERCP (answers may be multiple) Complication Total n = 216 Progress of medical condition 76 Sepsis 57 Respiratory problems 51 Renal failure 40 Cardiac problems 33 Hepatic failure 16 Upper or lower GI haemorrhage 9 Electrolyte imbalance 8 Subsequent related operation 6 Viscus perforation 4 Stroke 2 Haematological problems 2 Other 20 Total 324 None 56 Not answered 21 In comparison with 'progress of medical condition', the second most common complication following ERCP was sepsis (Table 47). Sepsis may be related to the high incidence of biliary stasis and infection in these patients, coupled with their age, underlying comorbidities and poor physical status. However, it does underline the need for an appropriate antibiotic strategy. There were two complications, perforation 2% (4/216) and haemorrhage 4% (9/216), that were directly attributable to the ERCP, and both of these are the most likely reason for the subsequent surgery in six patients. Death (back to top) Figure 15. Number of days between the ERCP procedure and death 37% (88/237) of deaths occurred in the first week and 30% (70/237) in the second week. One patient died in the endoscopy suite. (back to top)  ");sQ1[14]=new Array("ercp.endoscopist.htm","10. ERCP - The Endoscopist","","10. Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio- pancreatography INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE THE PROCEDURE THE ENDOSCOPIST COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH RECOMMENDATION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  THE ENDOSCOPIST Key point A consultant was the senior endoscopist for 97% of ERCPs. From the data available it could be seen that a consultant was the senior endoscopist for 97% (226/233) of ERCPs performed (Table 45). Table 45. Specialty and grade of endoscopist for ERCP Specialty Grade Total (%) Physician Consultant 154 (66) Associate specialist 1 (<1) Staff grade 2 (<1) SpR of three years or more 1 (<1) Surgeon Consultant 57 (24) Associate specialist 1 (<1) SpR - post CCT 1 (<1) Not answered 1 (<1) Radiologist Consultant 15 (6) Sub-total 233 Not answered 4 (2) Total 237 Where the data were available, in 11% (23/202) of cases the senior endoscopist performed less than 50 ERCPs a year. The exacting nature of this procedure, with its high complication rate, suggests that when an individual or unit is performing few ERCPs the advisability of them undertaking these procedures should be considered. However, there is no evidence on the number required to maintain competency and departments and individuals should be reviewing their own perfomance. Rationalising the service with internal referral to lead endoscopists for ERCP or inter-hospital referral may be indicated. (For a more detailed discussion on training and the problems of assessing competency, please refer to the chapter entitled ‘Training and Education’). (back to top)  ");sQ1[15]=new Array("ercp.patientprofile.htm","10. ERCP - Patient Profile","","10. Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio- pancreatography INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE THE PROCEDURE THE ENDOSCOPIST COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  PATIENT PROFILE Key point 77% of patients undergoing an ERCP had an ASA status of 3 or poorer. Of all patients having an ERCP 82% (194/237) were aged 70 years or older (Figure 14) and 49% were male. Figure 14. Age profile of patients undergoing ERCP Table 38. ASA Status ASA Status Total (%) 1 10 (5) 2 41 (18) 3 96 (43) 4 61 (27) 5 16 (7) Sub-total 224 Not answered 13 (6) Total 237 Of all patients having an ERCP 77% (173/224) were graded ASA3 or poorer (Table 38). Interestingly 16 were graded 5, but no specific details were available to the advisors to enable them to assess whether a therapeutic ERCP was appropriate. Considering the data in Table 38, it is not surprising that patients had the co-morbid conditions as listed in Table 39. Table 39. Comorbidities for patients undergoing ERCP (answers may be multiple) System Total n = 227 Respiratory 48 Cardiac 90 Neurological 42 Hepatic 114 Renal 42 Total 336 None 27 Not answered 10 From the data available 65% (153/234) of ERCPs were 'expected' procedures (Table 40). The advisors thought that approximately one third of patients having an urgent/emergency ERCP was appropriate, and that in their experience the commonest causes were biliary sepsis especially from an obstructed common bile duct, bile leaks e.g. post laparoscopic cholecystectomy and gall stone related pancreatitis. Table 40. Table 40. Urgency of procedure for ERCP Urgency of procedure Total (%) Elective/scheduled 153 (65) Urgent 74 (32) Emergency 7 (3) Sub-total 234 Not answered 3 (1) Total 237 In 69% (155/224) of cases, death within 30 days of the procedure was thought to be a definite risk or expected (Table 41). This reflects that in these patients ERCP was often palliative where the patient had a malignant disease. Overall the patient profile indicates that mostly these were sick patients of advanced age. Of interest is the advisors view that 68% (162/237) of therapeutic ERCPs were futile, with 90% (146/162) of these patients having an ASA status of 3 or more. The advisors were concerned that patients with hepatic metastases and no biliary obstruction were having therapeutic ERCPs. Table 41. Anticipated risk of death for ERCP Anticipated Risk of Death Total (%) Not expected 20 (9) Small but significant 49 (22) Definite risk 129 (58) Expected 26 (12) Sub-total 224 Not answered 13 (6) Total 237 (back to top)  ");sQ1[16]=new Array("ercp.procedure.htm","10. ERCP - The Procedure","","10. Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio- pancreatography INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE THE PROCEDURE THE ENDOSCOPIST COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  THE PROCEDURE Key point Only 87% of patients had prophylactic antibiotics for their ERCP. Of the 237 procedures, almost all involved the biliary tree (Table 42). These comprised of two major groups, sphincterotomy (88) and stenting (216), of which 50 were preceded bya sphincterotomy. Table 42. Type of procedure (answers may be multiple)  Total n = 237 Sphincterotomy and removal of calculus 34 Sphincterotomy and insertion of stent 50 Sphincterotomy of accessory ampulla 4 Insertion of stents into both hepatic ducts 8 Insertion of stent into bile ducts 123 Renewal of stent in bile duct 19 Removal of stent from bile duct 15 Dilation of bile duct 8 Insertion of stent into pancreatic duct 1 Removal of calculus from pancreatic duct 1 Total 263 87% (195/224) of patients having a therapeutic ERCP received prophylactic antibiotics (Table 43). Table 43. Antibiotic prophylaxis for ERCP Antibiotic prophylaxis Total (%) Yes 195 (87) No 29 (13) Sub-total 224 Not answered 13 (6) Total 237 6% of patients undergoing ERCP without duct occlusion and 10% of those with duct occlusion are likely to develop bacteraemia9. In the BSG guidelines on the use of antibiotics9, the BSG recommends antibiotic prophylaxis for all patients undergoing ERCP with evidence of biliary sepsis, pancreatic pseudo-cyst or previous cholangitis as well as patients who are either at risk of infective endocarditis or are neutropenic. Antibiotic prophylaxis should more closely approach 100% in this high-risk group. Although there may be local protocols regarding antibiotic prophylaxis, it is the responsibility of the endoscopist to ensure the patient has received appropriate antibiotics before the procedure. Table 44. Duration of ERCP procedures Duration of procedure (minutes) Total (%) 0-10 1 (<1) 11-20 22 (18) 21-30 44 (36) 31-40 18 (15) 41-50 16 (13) 51-60 12 (10) 61-70 4 (3) 71-80 1 (<1) 81-90 2 (2) 91-100 2 (2) >100 1 (<1) Sub-total 123 Not answered 114 (48) Total 237 One could anticipate that a therapeutic ERCP would take in the region of 45 minutes. It is disappointing that for 48% (114/237) of cases the respondents were not able to provide times for the procedures; they should be available (Table 44). When times were provided 55% of procedures took under 30 minutes, 38% between 30 and 60 minutes and only 8% lasted for more than one hour. The procedure that lasted more than 100 minutes in fact lasted six hours! (back to top)  ");sQ1[17]=new Array("ercp.recs.htm","10. ERCP - Recommendation","","10. Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio- pancreatography INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE THE PROCEDURE THE ENDOSCOPIST COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH RECOMMENDATION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  Recommendation Patients should be reviewed by the consultant endoscopist before therapeutic ERCP to ensure that the procedure is appropriate and that the patient's condition has been optimised.   ");sQ1[18]=new Array("ercp.references.htm","10. ERCP - References","","10. Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangio- pancreatography INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE THE PROCEDURE THE ENDOSCOPIST COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH RECOMMENDATION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Cohen S, Bacon BR, Berlin JA, Fleischer D, Hecht GA, Loehrer PJ Sr, McNair AE Jr, Mulholland M. Norton NJ, Rabeneck L, Ransohoff DF, Sonnenberg A, Vannier MW. National Institutes of Health State-of-the-Science Conference Statement: ERCP for diagnosis and therapy, January 14-16 2002. Gastroint Endosc 2002; 56(6):803-9 2 Vandervoort J, Soetikno RM, Tham TC, Wong RC, Ferrari AP Jr, Montes H, Roston AD, Slivka A, Lichtenstein DR, Ruymann FW, Van Dam J, Hughes M, Carr-Locke DL . Risk factors for complications after performance of ERCP. Gastroint Endosc 2002; 56(6):652-656 3 Freeman ML, Nelson DB, Sherman S, Haber GB, Herman ME, Dorsher PJ, Moore JP, Fennerty MB, Ryan ME, Shaw MJ, Lande JD, Pheley AM. Complications of endoscopic biliary sphincterotomy. N Eng J Med 1996; 335(13):909-918 4 Freeman ML. Adverse outcomes of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Rev Gastroenterol Disord 2002; 2(4):147-168. 5 Loperfindo S, Angelini G, Benedetti G, Chilovi F, De Berardinis F, De Bernardin M, Ederle A, Fina P, Fratron A. Major early complications from diagnostic and therapeutic ERCP: a prospective multicenter study. Gastroint Endosc 1998; 48(1):1-10 6 Allison MC,Ramanaden DN, Fouweather MG, Davis DK, Colin-Jones DG. Provision of ERCP services and training in the United Kingdom. Endoscopy 2000; 32(9):693-699 7 Kowalski T, Kanchana T, Pungpapong S. Perceptions of gastroenterology fellows regarding ERCP competency and training. Gastroint Endosc 2003; 58(3):345-349 8 Guidelines for the training, appraisal and assessment of trainees in GI endoscopy and for the Assessment of units for registration and re-registration. Joint advisory group on gastrointestinal endoscopy. Joint Advisory Group, London, 2004. www.thejag.org.uk/JAG_2004.pdf 9 Antibiotic prophylaxis in gastrointestinal endoscopy. BSG guidelines in gastroenterology, British Society of Gastroenterology, 2001. www.bsg.org.uk/pdf_word_docs/prophylaxis2001.pdf (back to top)  ");sQ1[19]=new Array("foreword.main.htm","Foreword","","Foreword SCOPING OUR PRACTICE  FOREWORD SCOPING OUR PRACTICE NCEPOD operates under the umbrella of the National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) as an independent confidential enquiry, whose main aim is to improve the quality and safety of patient care. Evidence is drawn from all sections of hospital activity in England and Wales, both NHS and private, and we are very grateful to all those who take part, both as assessors, local reporters and as recipients of individual case reporting forms. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to our clinical co-ordinators and all the permanent staff of NCEPOD for the enormous amount of work and enthusiasm which they have put into the production of this report and without which we could not hope to create such detailed analysis of, and comment upon, clinically-related hospital activity. 'Scoping our practice' represents a significant new direction for the work of NCEPOD in that it is the first report under our expanded remit to include medical cases. Based on the work of all gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopists, both medical and surgical, it emphasises our new title of the National Confidential Enquiry into Patient Outcome and Death. We have been keen to expand the work of the enquiry for some years and the physicians on our steering committee have provided an exciting new and critical angle on the design and recommendations of our reports. It is also the first NCEPOD report to be distributed on CD Rom instead of paper, which has allowed major advances in the presentation of our data. We are pleased that 93% of hospitals participated, although the questionnaire return rate of 66% is similar to that of anaesthetists and surgeons 10 years ago, when participation rates were 70%. This represents a serious challenge for NCEPOD in the future, if we are to produce credible results and evidence-based recommendations. Interventional gastrointestinal endoscopy is an important area of work in all district general hospitals. The cases covered by this report (1,818 in-patient deaths within 30 days of the procedure) represent only a small proportion of the total endoscopies performed in a year in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (136,000) and it is important to stress that most GI therapeutic endoscopies are uneventful. Because it is frequently a multidisciplinary service, the facilities available have often grown up in a piecemeal fashion and while there is a wide range of established practices, training and protocols, there are also some areas of very individual practice which take little account of the major advances in monitoring and sedation techniques which are widely available. Some endoscopy units did not have necessary monitoring equipment available in all rooms and where it was available, appropriate monitoring was not used in many situations when our advisors judged it was required on account of the patient’s condition. In 42% of cases no contemporaneous monitoring record was available in the notes and 14% of patients were judged by our advisors to have received an overdose of sedation. GI endoscopy services are provided by a wide range of specialties, including general medicine, general surgery, radiology, specialist medicine and specialist GI, ENT and thoracic surgery. In addition, nurse practitioners are becoming increasingly involved in diagnostic endoscopy and, as is shown in this report, in interventional treatment too. As a result, it is vitally important that hospitals have clearly defined protocols for optimising the treatment of these patients and for ensuring satisfactory monitoring and safe sedation techniques. Many endoscopy patients are severely ill, elderly and often poorly-prepared for an interventional procedure. Very few of them have the benefit of pre-procedure optimisation or indeed time on a high-dependency unit, their care taking place on a general ward as one of a number of seriously ill patients. Many have received large volume blood transfusions, with all the attendant problems. Anaesthetists are rarely involved in the care of these patients unless it is in an intensive care or high dependency unit setting in which the patient’s condition can often be considerably improved prior to intervention. In most hospitals there is a clear working pattern for routine endoscopy lists but very poor provision for out of hours care. This report demonstrates that less than a third of hospitals have a dedicated out of hours emergency endoscopy service and that a third of patients are actually treated at a less than optimal time for a variety of reasons. Although GI endoscopy as a specialty has produced good guidelines on training, the report highlights the need for national guidelines to assure continuing competence in endoscopy, particularly for those practitioners who only perform a small number of procedures each year. While the ability to perform endoscopy is an integral part of the training of many medical and surgical specialists, there is much more to the procedure that simply an ability to pass an endoscope and to make a diagnosis or instigate treatment. If we are to significantly improve the outcome of patients undergoing therapeutic endoscopy this report gives us many clear indications and recommendations about how this might be achieved. There is a major opportunity for multi disciplinary working and the setting up of clear guidelines for the management, optimisation, treatment and sedation of what are often seriously ill, elderly patients. Above all, we should aim to provide timely and optimal care in the best interests of what is a significant proportion of sick patients in every hospital. Dr Peter Simpson Chairman (back to top)  ");sQ1[20]=new Array("introduction.references.htm","1. Introduction - References","","1. Introduction INTRODUCTION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Hospital Episode Statistics, Table 10 (Total operations) NHS Hospitals, England, 2002-2003, Department of Health. Patient Episode Database for Wales, Health Solutions Wales. Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety.  ");sQ1[21]=new Array("methods.advisorygroups.htm","2. Methods - Advisory Groups","","2. Methods INTRODUCTION DATA COLLECTION DATA QUALITY AND VALIDATION ADVISORY GROUPS DATA ANALYSIS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  ADVISORY GROUPS A multi-disciplinary group of experts were invited to take part in a series of advisory meetings between July 2003 and March 2004 during which the anonymised casenotes were reviewed and areas of concern highlighted. The group included upper and lower GI physicians and surgeons, anaesthetists, a senior endoscopy nurse, an endoscopy unit manager, a general practitioner and pathologists. During these meetings, advisors reviewed the questionnaires in association with the relevant casenotes, where available, and completed a questionnaire assessment form (Appendix C) based on their clinical knowledge and experience. A separate group of pathology advisors reviewed the autopsy reports and histopathology findings and completed the corresponding questionnaire assessment forms (Appendix C). This peer review process remains a strength of NCEPOD methodology that is accepted and welcomed by clinicians. Advisors are able to review the patient journey and take into account many factors that are difficult to capture from a questionnaire. In this report, vignettes will be used to illustrate points highlighted during the advisory meetings.   ");sQ1[22]=new Array("methods.dataanalysis.htm","2. Methods - Data Analysis","","2. Methods INTRODUCTION DATA COLLECTION DATA QUALITY AND VALIDATION ADVISORY GROUPS DATA ANALYSIS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  DATA ANALYSIS The data were aggregated and anonymised prior to analysis. The data obtained from the questionnaire assessment forms were analysed to determine areas of concern raised by the advisors. Where appropriate, these data were cross-referenced with the clinical information in order to clarify and expand findings. Where data presented are based on the opinions and finding from the advisory groups, this is clearly stated.   ");sQ1[23]=new Array("methods.datacollection.htm","2. Methods - Data Collection","","2. Methods INTRODUCTION DATA COLLECTION GI therapeutic endoscopies Upper GI dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion Organisational questionnaire DATA QUALITY AND VALIDATION ADVISORY GROUPS DATA ANALYSIS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  DATA COLLECTION GI therapeutic endoscopies All deaths occurring in hospital between 1 April 2002 and 31 March 2003 were reported to NCEPOD by designated local reporters for each hospital. Data were requested from all hospitals in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Guernsey, the Isle of Man, the Defence Secondary Care Agency and hospitals in the independent sector. Sample cases were identified from these data by Office of Population Censuses and Surveys (OPCS) codes, which were submitted for the last six procedures before death. Cases were included if death occurred within 30 days of a therapeutic endoscopy, regardless of whether it was the last procedure or not. If more than one endoscopy was recorded in the death data, only the last procedure before death was included. The following OPCS codes1 were included in the sample: PEG G34: Artificial opening into stomach ERCP J38: Endoscopic incision of sphincter of Oddi J40: Endoscopic retrograde placement of prosthesis in bile duct J41: Other therapeutic endoscopic retrograde operations on bile duct J42: Therapeutic endoscopic retrograde operations on pancreatic duct Upper GI G14: Fibreoptic endoscopic extirpation of lesion of oesophagus G15: Other therapeutic fibreoptic endoscopic operations on oesophagus G17: Endoscopic extirpation of lesion of oesophagus using rigid oesophagoscope G18: Other therapeutic endoscopic operations on oesophagus using rigid oesophagoscope G43: Fibreoptic endoscopic extirpation of lesion of upper gastrointestinal tract G44: Other fibreoptic therapeutic endoscopic operations on upper gastrointestinal tract G54: Therapeutic endoscopic operations on duodenum G64: Therapeutic endoscopic operations on jejunum Lower GI H20: Endoscopic extirpation of lesion of colon H21: Other therapeutic endoscopic operations on colon H23: Endoscopic extirpation of lesion of lower bowel using fibreoptic sigmoidoscope H24: Other therapeutic endoscopic operations on lower bowel using fibreoptic sigmoidoscope The terminology used to describe procedures in this report is based on these OPCS codes. Procedures coded as one of the above but carried out under radiological guidance, without endoscopy, were excluded. Likewise, procedures carried out at a hospital different to the one where the patient died were also excluded due to the complexity of linking patient data. Data were collected retrospectively via a questionnaire (Appendix C), which requested information on pre-procedural investigations, the procedure, sedation and monitoring, the clinicians involved in the procedure, and training and audit. A questionnaire with a unique NCEPOD number and covering letter was sent to the clinician responsible for the patient at the time of their death. In order to reduce the burden on the clinicians, the number of questionnaires to be completed was limited to three per clinician. However, if a clinician returned more than three, the questionnaires were included in the study. A first reminder for return of questionnaires was sent two months after the questionnaire, followed by a second reminder one month later. Copies of extracts of the casenotes, including the endoscopy report, monitoring charts and autopsy report were also requested. Both these and the questionnaires were anonymised by NCEPOD administrative staff to ensure that individual patients, clinicians and hospitals could not be identified. NCEPOD wrote to all general practitioners from a list provided by the British Society of Gastroenterologists (BSG), and asked them if they performed therapeutic GI endoscopies. Those who reported that they carried out these procedures were requested to notify NCEPOD in the event of death within 30 days of a procedure. Upper GI dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion (back to top) A second dataset was collected prospectively on all patients, of 16 years of age and over, undergoing an upper GI dilation or tubal prosthesis insertion between 1 January and 31 March 2003, regardless of outcome. NCEPOD local reporters were asked for a list of patients, from their information department, who had had one of the following eight procedures, identified by the OPCS codes1 : Upper GI dilation G15.2: Fibreoptic endoscopic balloon dilation of oesophagus G15.3: Fibreoptic endoscopic dilation of oesophagus not elsewhere classified G18.2: Endoscopic balloon dilation of oesophagus using rigid oesophagoscope G18.3: Endoscopic dilation of oesophagus using rigid oesophagoscope not elsewhere classified G44.3: Fibreoptic endoscopic dilation of upper gastrointestinal tract Tubal prosthesis insertion G15.4: Fibreoptic endoscopic insertion of tubal prosthesis into oesophagus  G18.4: Endoscopic insertion of tubal prosthesis into oesophagus using rigid oesophagoscope  G44.1: Fibreoptic endoscopic insertion of prosthesis into upper gastrointestinal tract The terminology used in this report is based on these OPCS codes. The term dilation and dilatation are used synonymously. Questionnaires (Appendix C), which consisted of two sides of an A4 sheet, were sent prospectively to NCEPOD local reporters for dissemination to the consultant responsible for the procedure. No patient identifiers were collected on the questionnaire and pre-paid envelopes were provided so that questionnaires could be returned directly to NCEPOD; this ensured both patient and clinician confidentiality. No casenote extracts were requested. General practitioners who performed upper GI dilations and tubal prosthesis insertions were identified, as before, and asked to notify NCEPOD when they performed a procedure included in the study. Organisational questionnaire (back to top) An organisational questionnaire (Appendix C) requesting information about the endoscopy suite and organisational aspects of the endoscopy service was sent to the NCEPOD local reporter of each hospital for completion. The questions were based on the guidelines from the Working Party of the BSG Endoscopy Committee 20012.  ");sQ1[24]=new Array("methods.dataquality.htm","2. Methods - Data Quality and Validation","","2. Methods INTRODUCTION DATA COLLECTION DATA QUALITY AND VALIDATION ADVISORY GROUPS DATA ANALYSIS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  DATA QUALITY AND VALIDATION All data from the completed questionnaires were entered onto a computer system using scanning software and following data quality checks, the data were imported into a Microsoft Access© database. To ensure completeness and quality of the data submitted to NCEPOD, further data inconsistency checks were performed once the data had been imported into the database.   ");sQ1[25]=new Array("methods.intro.htm","2. Methods - Introduction","","2. Methods INTRODUCTION DATA COLLECTION DATA QUALITY AND VALIDATION ADVISORY GROUPS DATA ANALYSIS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  2. METHODS INTRODUCTION The data presented in this report relate to three datasets: All deaths occurring in hospital within 30 days of a gastrointestinal (GI) therapeutic endoscopy between 1 April 2002 and 31 March 2003. Upper GI dilations and tubal prosthesis insertions performed in adults (of 16 years of age and over) between 1 January and 31 March 2003, regardless of outcome. Data collected from hospitals on organisational aspects of endoscopy services. The method of data collection for each dataset is outlined below.  ");sQ1[26]=new Array("methods.references.htm","2. Methods - References","","2. Methods INTRODUCTION DATA COLLECTION DATA QUALITY AND VALIDATION ADVISORY GROUPS DATA ANALYSIS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Tabular list of the classification of surgical operations and procedures. Fourth revision. Office of Population Censuses and Surveys. HMSO, 1993 2 Provision of endoscopy related services in District General Hospitals. BSG Working Party Report, 2001. www.bsg.org.uk/pdf_word_docs/endo_related_services.pdf   ");sQ1[27]=new Array("ogd.intro.htm","11. Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy - Introduction","","11. Oesophagastro- duodenoscopy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL HAEMORRHAGE RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  11. OESOPHAGOGASTRO- DUODENOSCOPY INTRODUCTION Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy (OGD) is the commonest procedure in the gastroenterologist’s repertoire and in this sample 44% (809/1,818) of patients underwent an OGD. Of these, 65% (524/809) of patients had suffered an upper gastrointestinal (GI) haemorrhage. Upper GI haemorrhage is a condition that accounts for between 1 - 4% of all emergency admissions, and 11% of patients admitted with upper GI haemorrhage will die1. Inflammation and ulceration are responsible for the majority of cases and only 5 - 10% are due to oesophageal varices1. This chapter will focus mainly on patients with upper GI haemorrhage. Guidelines for the management of variceal and non-variceal upper GI haemorrhage have been produced by the British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG)2 3.  ");sQ1[28]=new Array("ogd.patientprofile.htm","11. Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy - Patient Profile","","11. Oesophagastro- duodenoscopy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL HAEMORRHAGE RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  PATIENT PROFILE The age of all patients who underwent OGD is presented in Figure 16. 61% (493/809) were aged 70 years or older and 60% (485/809) were male. Figure 16. Age profile of patients undergoing OGD procedure The diagnoses providing the reason for OGD, which were analysed from assessment of the free text for the procedure performed, are presented in Table 48. Table 48. The reason for OGD Diagnosis Total (%) Variceal disease 355 (44) Ulcer 163 (20) Stricture Malignant 165 (20) Benign 119 (15) Polyp 5 (<1) Sub-total 807 Not answered 2 (<1) Total 809 The commonest diagnosis, 44% (355/807), was of variceal disease and in only 20% (163/807) was there a diagnosis of ulcer. This was surprising as ulcer disease is very common, and bleeding ulcers are more common than varices1. However, it suggests that patients with bleeding ulcers are more likely to survive compared with those who suffer variceal haemorrhage. This may reflect the severity of shock associated with variceal haemorrhage and the associated comorbidity, particularly hepatic disease1. The complications or events that occurred within 30 days of the procedure are presented in Table 49. Table 49. Complications after therapeutic upper GI endoscopy (answers may be multiple) Complication Total n = 740 Progress of medical condition 203 Respiratory problems 175 Haemorrhage 141 Cardiac problems 111 Renal failure 81 Hepatic failure 67 Sepsis 45 Subsequent related surgery 30 Haematological problems 30 Electrolyte imbalance 25 Viscus perforation 21 Stroke 14 Total 850 None 93 Not answered 69 This shows that, other than the progress of the medical condition, the most common complications were respiratory problems 21% (175/850), haemorrhage 17% (141/850) and cardiac problems 13% (111/850). These data are similar to previous studies that have shown cardio-respiratory complications to be the most prominent4 5 following both therapeutic and diagnostic upper GI endoscopy. The complications of viscus perforation and haemorrhage and the need for surgery may be related to the procedure, and these are presented in Table 50. Table 50. Procedure versus operative complication (answers may be multiple) Procedure (total performed) Perforation Haemorrhage Surgery Total n = 809 Snare (5) 1 0 1 2 Coagulation (104) 0 23 6 29 Laser (9) 0 1 0 1 Sclerosis (400) 1 71 15 87 Banding (41) 0 6 0 6 Dilation (125) 15 5 0 20 Stenting (259) 4 35 8 47 Total 21 141 30 192 The techniques used to secure haemostasis were argon/plasma coagulation, laser treatment, injection with either adrenaline or sclerosing agents, or banding, or a combination of these techniques. Most were used appropriately and followed BSG guidelines2 3. However, in a number of patients with bleeding oesophageal varices adrenaline was injected into either the oesophageal mucosa and /or the adjacent varix in an attempt to control bleeding, which is not recommended in the UK guidelines of management of variceal haemorrhage2. Although continued or recurrent haemorrhage can occur after haemostatic attempts with either argon/plasma coagulation (22%, 23/104), or sclerotherapy (18%, 71/400), or banding (15%, 6/41), there appeared to be a surprisingly high incidence following stenting (14%, 35/259). The following case illustrates that repeat endoscopy can be indicated, and the fact that different pathologies can co-exist. Case Study  A young patient with known cirrhosis presented with haematemesis. The pre-endoscopy management was exemplary. Subsequent endosopy revealed bleeding varices, which were banded. The patient received terlipressin, but continued to bleed. A further endoscopy 12 hours later confirmed that the treated varices were not bleeding, but there was a haemorrhage from a duodenal ulcer. Despite surgical intervention the patient continued to bleed, and died from disseminated intravascular coagulation. (back to top)  ");sQ1[29]=new Array("ogd.recs.htm","11. Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy - Recommendations","","11. Oesophagastro- duodenoscopy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL HAEMORRHAGE RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  Recommendations Only experienced endoscopists should treat patients with upper GI haemorrhage. Experience will vary by grade but competence should be assessed by the supervising consultant. Optimising the patient’s pre-endoscopy condition will reduce both morbidity and mortality. Early involvement of an anaesthetist/intensivist if necessary, will assist this.  ");sQ1[30]=new Array("ogd.references.htm","11. Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy - References","","11. Oesophagastro- duodenoscopy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL HAEMORRHAGE RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Rockall TA, Logan RF, Devlin HB, Northfield TC. Incidence and mortality from acute upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage in the United Kingdom. Steering committee and members of the national audit of acute upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage. BMJ 1995; 311(6999):222-6 2 Jalan R, Hayes PC. UK guidelines on the management of variceal haemorrhage in cirrhotic patients. Gut 2000; 46 Suppl 3-4:iii1-15 3 British Society of Gastroenterology Endoscopy Committee. Non-variceal upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage: Guidelines. Gut 2002; 51 suppl 4:iv1-6. 4 Hart R, Classen M. Complications of diagnostic gastrointestinal endoscopy. Endoscopy 1990; 22(5):229-33 5 Quine MA, Bell GD, McCloy RF, Charlton JE, Devlin HB, Hopkins A. Prospective audit of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in two regions of England: safety, staffing, and sedation methods. Gut 1995; 36(3):462-7  ");sQ1[31]=new Array("ogd.uppergastro.htm","11. Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy - Upper Gastrointestinal Haemorrhage","","11. Oesophagastro- duodenoscopy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL HAEMORRHAGE Urgency of the procedure and patient's physical status Appropriateness of the procedure and organisation of care Specialty and grade of endoscopist Location, sedation and monitoring Death and audit RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL HAEMORRHAGE Key point In 79% of cases the procedure was performed too late to benefit the patient. To identify patients who had suffered from upper GI haemorrhage, NCEPOD identified patients who had laser destruction or cauterisation of their lesion, or where ‘other’ procedure suggested treatment for haemorrhage. From this 65% (524/809) of patients were identified as having suffered an upper (GI) haemorrhage. Urgency of the procedure and patient’s physical status (back to top) In 1995 Rockall and co-workers1 devised a scoring system for the risk of rebleeding and death after acute gastrointestinal bleeding, which is widely used by upper GI specialists in guiding their local protocols. The risk factors that accurately predict death at the time of admission are summarised here (from the BSG in their guidelines for the management of non-variceal upper GI haemorrhage)3 : • Age: death in patients less than 40 years is rare while the risk of death is 30% in those over 90 years of age • Comorbidity: particularly advanced renal or liver disease, or disseminated cancer. But it is crucial that diseases of the heart, respiratory system and central nervous system are recognised and appropriately managed • Shock: defined as a heart rate >100 beats/min and systolic blood pressure <100mmHg • Endoscopy findings: Mallory Weiss tear or finding no stigmata of recent haemorrhage are low risk whereas active bleeding in a shocked patient carries a 80% risk of continued bleeding or death. For those with liver disease the prognosis is related to the severity of liver disease rather than to the magnitude of haemorrhage. With these factors in mind NCEPOD analysed the urgency of the procedure (Table 51) and the patient’s physical status (Figure 17). Table 51. Urgency of the procedure for upper GI haemorrhage Urgency Total (%) Elective/scheduled 70 (14) Urgent 243 (50) Emergency 175 (36) Sub-total 488 Not answered 36 (7) Total 524 Figure 17. ASA status of those with upper GI haemorrhage Of the 524 upper GI endoscopies for haemorrhage, 50% (243/488) were classed as urgent and 36% (175/488) as emergency (Table 51). Most of the patients were also assessed as being either severely ill (ASA 3), 31% (154/492), having a severe illness that is a constant threat to life (ASA 4), 38% (188/492), or moribund (ASA 5 ), 16% (80/492). Four patients who were classified as ASA 5 were apparently having a scheduled procedure. Table 52 presents the comorbidities at the time of the procedure. Table 52. Comorbidities for upper GI haemorrhage (answers may be multiple) System Total n = 515 Respiratory 148 Cardiac 173 Neurological 128 Hepatic 59 Renal 122 Total 630 None 18 Not answered 9 Of these, 24% (123/515) had ischaemic heart disease and 15% (77/515) had an acute chest infection. Cardiac disease in association with an upper GI haemorrhage should indicate the need for ECG monitoring, and respiratory disease the need for pulse oximetry and supplemental oxygen during the endoscopy (see earlier chapter entitled ‘Sedation and monitoring’). From a separate question 38% (199/524) of patients with upper GI haemorrhage had cirrhosis. The Childs-Pugh score for those patients with cirrhosis is presented in Table 53. Table 53. Childs-Pugh score of those patients with cirrhosis and upper GI haemorrhage Childs-Pugh Score Total (%) A 16 (8) B 35 (19) C 138 (73) Sub-total 189 Not answered 10 (5) Total 199 The high proportion of patients with advanced cirrhosis reinforces the association between the severity of liver disease and death following upper GI haemorrhage. Table 54 presents the anticipated risk of death in the opinion of the clinician at the time of the procedure. Table 54. Anticipated risk of death for upper GI haemorrhage Risk of death Total (%) Not expected 17 (4) Small but significant risk 37 (7) Definite risk 330 (65) Expected 124 (24) Sub-total 508 Not answered 16 (3) Total 524 In total, 89% (454/508) had a definite risk of death or death was expected indicating that the sample contained an exceptionally high-risk group of patients. Appropriateness of the procedure and organisation of care (back to top) In their review of the cases NCEPOD advisors assessed the appropriateness and timing of the procedure for those with upper GI haemorrhage. Table 55 presents the advisors' opinion on the appropriateness of the procedure and Table 56 the reasons why the procedure was considered inappropriate. Table 55. The appropriateness of the procedure for those with upper GI haemorrhage Procedure appropriate Total (%) Yes 473 (92) No 25 (5) Undecided 17 (3) Sub-total 515 Insufficient information 8 Not answered 1 (<1) Total 524 Table 56. Reasons for inappropriate procedures (answers may be multiple) Reason Total n = 23 Futile procedure 13 No endoscopic procedure indicated 4 Different endoscopic procedure indicated 2 Surgery in the first instance would have been more appropriate 1 Other 6 Total 26 Not answered 2 It is reassuring that for 92% (473/515) of cases the procedure was assessed as appropriate. For these 473 cases the advisors were asked to consider whether the procedure was also appropriately timed. In 33/473 (7%) of cases the timing was considered inappropriate and the reasons for this are presented in Table 57. Table 57. Reasons why the timing of the procedure was inappropriate (answers may be multiple) Reasons Total n = 31 Late, delayed referral 10 Late, inappropriate prolonged resuscitation 5 Late – other 16 Early, further preoperative resuscitation indicated 4 Early – other 2 Total 37 Not answered 2 On reviewing the cases NCEPOD advisors were also concerned about delays for a variety of non-clinical reasons, for example there were 21 delays for organisational issues, including nine cases that should have been done as emergencies but were deferred until normal working hours. There were also 20 cases where there may not have been delays, but there were other concerns about the organisation of care. Table 58 presents the advisors' opinion on the overall quality of care. Table 58. Advisor opinion on the overall quality of care provided for upper GI haemorrhage  Total (%) Good practice 308 (73) Room for improvement 79 (19) Less than satisfactory 33 (8) Sub-total 420 Insufficient information submitted to assess 90 (1) Not answered 14 (3) Total 524 The reasons for less than satisfactory care were diverse. They were clinical, e.g. inadequate or delayed resuscitation, or organisational, e.g. lack of ICU beds, poor referral policies, inadequate out-of-hours care etc. However, that there was room for improvement or the care provided was less than satisfactory in 27% of patients who suffered upper GI haemorrhage suggests that Trusts should review the provision of care for these patients in order to identify deficiencies locally. Case Study  An elderly patient with cirrhosis (no cause stated) and ischaemia related biventricular failure presented with a haematemesis that was not considered to be severe by the admitting clinican as the “urea is only 6.5”. The patient was tachypnoeic, tachycardic and hypotensive. Before endoscopy, the patient did not receive either supplemental oxygen or intravenous fluids – which in view of the cardiac condition should have been governed by central venous monitoring. The clinician failed to consider the: 1. effect of liver disease on blood urea levels 2. significance of a tachycardia and hypotension 3. likelihood of abnormal clotting, and no test was requested until two days after admission. Case Study  A young patient with alcoholic cirrhosis presented after a haematemesis and melaena. On examination the patient was confused, tachycardic and hypotensive. Initial results included a glucose of 2.6 mmol/l, Hb 5gm/dl, platelets 30x109/L and an INR of 2.6. The pre-endoscopy treatment was resuscitation with normal saline, gelofusin and blood, and intravenous glypressin. Unfortunately no supplemental oxygen was given, and the hypoglycaemia, throbocytopenia and prolonged INR were not corrected. Specialty and grade of endoscopist (back to top) Key point The endoscopists managing patients with upper GI haemorrhage were mostly of an appropriate specialty. However, 24% were trainees. The BSG guidelines recommend that patients admitted with upper GI bleeding should be the responsibility of a medical or surgical gastroenterologist who collaborates with a consultant in the other discipline. Ideally, specialist gastroenterologists (physicians or surgeons) should admit and manage these patients3. Table 59. Specialty of senior endoscopist for upper GI haemorrhage Specialty Total (%) Specialised GI physician 410 (80) Other physician 13 (3) Specialised GI surgeon 72 (14) Other surgeon 10 (2) Radiologist 1 (<1) General practitioner 3 (<1) Nurse practitioner 1 (<1) Other 2 (<1) Sub-total 512 Not answered 12 (2) Total 524 As can be seen from Table 59, 94% (482/512) of patients with upper GI haemorrhage had their endoscopy performed by a specialised GI physician (80%) or surgeon (14%). Table 60. Grade of senior endoscopist for upper GI haemorrhage Grade Total (%) Consultant 351 (68) Staff grade and associate specialist 37 (7) General practitioner 2 (<1) Nurse practitioner 1 (<1) SpR - year 3 or over 109 (21) SpR - year 1/2 12 (2) SHO 1 (<1) Other trainee 4 (<1) Sub-total 517 Not answered 7 (1) Total 524 Consultants did most of the endoscopies (68%, 351/517) (Table 60). Most, but not all, of the remainder were done by specialist registrars (23%, 121/517), and staff grade and associate specialists (7%, 37/517). That one fifth of these very sick patients were done by SpR year 3 or over looks to be too high, but that would also depend on the time of the procedure and the level of supervision. The SpRs year 1/2 and the SHO were all physicians. Although their experience is not known one would suspect that emergency GI endoscopy for haemorrhage carried out by these grades would be inappropriate. Location, sedation and monitoring (back to top) Key points 13% of patients with upper GI haemorrhage received excessive sedation. 23% of patients received insufficient monitoring during the procedure. Most patients presenting with upper GI haemorrhage (87%, 448/516) had their endoscopy in an appropriate location (Table 61) according to BSG recommendations3. However, it is also likely that the critical care areas (ICU/HDU) have facilities similar to those in a theatre environment. Thus, the location would seem appropriate in 98% of cases (506/516). This figure may be even higher, but there are no specific details about facilities in the remaining locations. Table 61. Endoscopy location for those with upper GI haemorrhage Location Total (%) Dedicated endoscopy suite 386 (75) Operating theatres 62 (12) ICU/HDU 58 (11) Admissions ward 3 (<1) A&E 2 (<1) Day surgery unit 2 (<1) X-ray department 2 (<1) Other ward 1 (<1) Sub-total 516 Not answered 8 Total 524 Endoscopists differ in their use of analgesia and sedation, based on personal preference, experience and the clinical condition of the patient. In the context of upper GI haemorrhage the combinations used are shown in Table 62. Table 62. Analgesia and sedation during endoscopy for those with upper GI haemorrhage (answers may be multiple) Analgesia and sedation Total n = 477 Local anaesthesia 167 Intravenous benzodiazepine 308 Intravenous opiod 46 Other intravenous sedation 36 Total 557 None 28 Not answered 47 In interpreting these data it should be remembered that the endoscopist did not sedate all patients. For example those on ICU/HDU may have been in receipt of sedation and IPPV and those in the operating theatres may have had an anaesthetist present. This may account for some cases where no sedation was given and that the other intravenous sedatives included propofol, which is usually given by an anaesthetist. It is of concern that almost one third of these patients who by the evidence of their physical status and anticipated risk were very sick, received local anaesthesia to the oropharynx, including 25% (20/80) of patients who had an ASA status of 5. Local anaesthetic to the oropharynx alone may be appropriate for a sick patient. 30% (167/557) had local anaesthesia alone but 25% (139/557) had local anaesthesia combined with sedation. The risk of local anaesthesia to the oropharynx and aspiration is discussed further in the chapter entitled ‘Sedation and monitoring'. In 13% (68/524) of cases the advisors thought the sedation provided was inappropriate, mostly because of excessive benzodiazepine. 9% (49/524) of patients required reversal of their sedation with flumazenil and/or naloxone following the procedure, mostly because of sedation overdose, and this figure is too high. In 23% (123/524) of cases the advisors thought that there were deficiencies in patient monitoring. The reason for deficiencies is presented in Table 63. Table 63. Reasons for deficiencies in monitoring for those with upper GI haemorrhage (answers may be multiple) Reasons for deficiencies in monitoring Total n = 123 No pulse oximetry 6 No ECG recording 103 No BP recording 65 No dedicated person to monitor patient 5 Other 3 Total 182 Not answered 2 As discussed more fully in the chapter on ‘Sedation and monitoring’ the under use of ECG and blood pressure monitoring in these patients, who have the potential for haemodynamic instability, represents poor monitoring practice. 4% (19/495) of patients were not given supplemental oxygen during the procedure and this is clearly unacceptable. The location of patients immediately following the procedure is presented in Table 64. Table 64. Location of patient immediately after the procedure for those with upper GI haemorrhage Location Total (%) Dedicated recovery area within the endoscopy unit 321 (63) Dedicated recovery area within the operating theatres 47 (9) ICU/HDU 97 (19) General ward 31 (6) Died during the procedure 4 (1) Other 12 (2) Sub-total 512 Not answered 12 (2) Total 524 It is unacceptable that any patient who has had an endoscopy for upper GI bleeding, particularly if they have received sedation, should go to an area without full recovery and resuscitation facilities such as a general ward. Death and audit (back to top) Figure 18. Days between procedure and death in cases with upper GI haemorrhage Deaths within 72 hours (41%, 209/514) of the endoscopy (Figure 18) were likely to be due to either continuing haemorrhage, or associated complications. Deaths in the second week were probably mainly due to sepsis and organ dysfunction, and organ dysfunction was likely to be the main cause in the remainder of the thirty days. Table 65 presents whether the department of the endoscopist who undertook the procedure held audit/morbidity/mortality meetings and Table 66 presents whether the case was considered at a meeting. Table 65. Were audit meetings held in the department of the endoscopist?  Total (%) Yes 325 (67) No 157 (33) Sub-total 482 Not answered 42 (8) Total 524 Table 66. Were deaths considered at an audit meeting?  Total (%) Yes 104 (25) No 305 (75) Sub-total 409 Not answered 115 (22) Total 524 Of the 305 cases not considered at an audit/morbidity/mortality meeting it was intended to discuss 62 at a later date. However, this leaves 59% of cases where a patient died following an upper GI haemorrhage not being discussed at audit and a further 22% where audit was not specified. (back to top)  ");sQ1[32]=new Array("organisational.audit.htm","4. Organisational Issues - Audit/Governance Meetings","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS Key point 42% of hospitals do not hold audit meetings in their endoscopy department. The BSG Report1 recommends that there should be clear responsibility for the organisation of departmental meetings, which should form the basis of departmental audit. The Report also recommends that nurse endoscopists should undertake audit as a fundamental part of their role. We asked whether units held regular audit/governance meetings as opposed to multidisciplinary team meetings. Five hospitals did not answer this question but of those that did, 58% (110/189) held audit meetings and 17% (19/110) of these were for doctors alone. The frequency of meetings varied from weekly to greater than bi-monthly, with 68% (75/110) having meetings bi-monthly or more regularly (Figure 7). Figure 7. Frequency of audit meetings (back to top)  ");sQ1[33]=new Array("organisational.intro.htm","4.Organisational Issues - Introduction","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  4. ORGANISATIONAL ISSUES INTRODUCTION Each participating hospital was sent a questionnaire, which asked for details about the size of the hospital, the numbers of patients undergoing endoscopy within the hospital and the facilities available within the endoscopy unit. The information collected has been compared to the recommendations from the British Society of Gastroenterology Working Party in 20011 (the BSG Report) on the provision of endoscopy related services in district general hospitals. The BSG Report1 focused on a number of key areas, including the requirements for endoscopy, where this should be performed and the facilities required in an endoscopy unit.  ");sQ1[34]=new Array("organisational.nurseendoscopists.htm","4. Organisational Issues - Nurse Endoscopists","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS Key point In 17% of hospitals, nurse endoscopists perform only one session per week. The majority of hospitals, 76% (138/182) use a nurse endoscopist for at least one session a week (12 hospitals did not answer the question on personnel). However, 17% (24/138) do only one session per week which goes against the recommendation in the BSG Report1 that in order for nurses to remain competent they should undertake two or more sessions per week.  ");sQ1[35]=new Array("organisational.outofhoursendoscopy.htm","4. Organisational Issues - Out of Hours Endoscopy","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY Key point 62% of hospitals do not operate an out of hours on-call rota for emergency cases. The majority of requests for emergency or out of hours endoscopy involve the management of patients with acute gastrointestinal bleeding. The BSG Report1 states that it is essential that consultant gastroenterologists are available to come to the endoscopy unit when necessary to supervise the management of patients with acute gastrointestinal haemorrhage. However, it is recognised that it is difficult for smaller units to provide 24 hour cover. In our sample 38% (69/180) of hospitals operate an out of hours on-call rota and 14 hospitals did not answer this question. Of the hospitals that completed the question on out of hours cases, 35% (67/190) performed these cases within the endoscopy unit. In 55% (105/190) of hospitals out of hours emergencies were dealt with in main theatres contrary to recommendations in the BSG Report: “Emergency endoscopy should be performed in the main Endoscopy Unit with experienced nursing staff available – not as a rushed procedure, either in a side room on a medical ward, or in a main operating theatre, unless the endoscopy is being performed immediately prior to surgery.” However, NCEPOD recognises that in some circumstances, for example upper GI bleeds, it might be more appropriate to treat the patient in a fully-equipped operating theatre. It may also be too costly to ensure that an Endoscopy Department is open 24 hours a day to receive such patients, especially in small units. (back to top)  ");sQ1[36]=new Array("organisational.questionnaire.htm","4. Organisational Issues - Questionnaire Return","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN A total of 263 hospitals participated in the endoscopy study and 74% (194/263) returned the facilities questionnaire.   ");sQ1[37]=new Array("organisational.recoveryareas.htm","4. Organisational Issues - Recovery Areas","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  RECOVERY AREAS 6% of hospitals who provided information on recovery (12/187) did not have a dedicated recovery area within their endoscopy unit despite a recommendation within the BSG Report1 which expects the same equipment that is in each endoscopy room, namely oxygen, pulse oximetry and ECG monitoring to be present in recovery. 81% of hospitals with recovery rooms (142/175) had oxygen and only 47% (82/175) had pulse oximetry.  ");sQ1[38]=new Array("organisational.recs.htm","4. Organisational Issues - Recommendations","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  Recommendations Hospitals should ensure that the appropriate monitoring equipment and resuscitation equipment is available in each of their endoscopy rooms and recovery areas. In order to produce optimal care for what is a large group of severely ill patients, hospitals should consider establishing formal on-call arrangements.   ");sQ1[39]=new Array("organisational.references.htm","4. Organisational Issues - References","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Provision of endoscopy related services in District General Hospitals. BSG Working Party Report, 2001. www.bsg.org.uk/pdf_word_docs/endo_related_services.pdf 2 Safety and sedation during endoscopic procedures. British Society of Gastroenterology, 2003. www.bsg.org.uk/clinical_prac/guidelines/sedation.htm  ");sQ1[40]=new Array("organisational.resuscitation.htm","4. Organisational Issues - Resuscitation Facilities","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  RESUSCITATION FACILITIES Despite the BSG Report1 stating “All units should have full resuscitation facilities available including a cardiac defibrillator…” 19% (37/191) of units who provided information did not have a resuscitation trolley within the unit or shared facilities with other departments. Of these 37, 19 were hospitals that were undertaking more than 3,000 endoscopies a year within their unit. Three hospitals had no defibrillator in the endoscopy unit. Of concern, three hospitals did not have resuscitation training but where they did, it was provided regularly with 95% (178/188) of units saying they had training at least every year. Eight units had training only every three years, one unit said their training was ‘sporadic’ and one questionnaire was left blank.  ");sQ1[41]=new Array("organisational.roomequipment.htm","4. Organisational Issues - Endoscopy Room Equipment","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT Key points 5% of hospitals do not have piped oxygen in any of their endoscopy rooms. 37% of hospitals do not have any ECG monitors in their endoscopy unit. When equipping endoscopy units, the BSG Report1 recommends that each room should contain piped oxygen, suction, pulse oximetry and facilities for ECG monitoring. Of the hospitals that completed the section on equipment, 5% (9/189) of hospitals had no oxygen in any endoscopy rooms and a further three (1.5%) only had it in some rooms. 99% (188/189) of hospitals had pulse oximetry in every room but only 47% (87/187) had ECG monitoring in every room and 37% (69/187) did not have any ECG monitors in the unit. It is recommended2 that ECG monitoring is needed for those patients with significant cardiac risk and therefore those units which do not have any ECG facilities should address this issue as a matter of urgency.  ");sQ1[42]=new Array("organisational.sizeofendoscopy.htm","4. Organisational Issues - Size of Endoscopy Unit","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT Key point 7% of hospitals (undertaking >2500 procedures) had only one endoscopy room. The BSG Report1 recommended that an average DGH (2,500-3,000 endoscopies per year) should have a minimum of two endoscopy rooms within the unit. Of the 185 hospitals that answered the question on endoscopy rooms, 7% (13/185) had less than two rooms. However, Figure 6 shows, there are clearly some hospitals which are very well equipped as well as some larger hospitals that appear to have fewer rooms than would appear adequate if they are going to provide an appropriate service for patients. As previously commented upon, it was a concern to NCEPOD that 17% of hospitals could not provide details of either the number of endoscopy procedures performed a year or the number of rooms that they had in their unit. Anecdotally, however, we know that the issue of room efficiency is complex depending on issues such as where ERCP and bronchoscopies are performed. All hospitals should ensure that the best use of their facilities is being made. Figure 6. Annual number of patients by number of endoscopy rooms (back to top)  ");sQ1[43]=new Array("organisational.workload.htm","4. Organisational Issues - Workload of Endoscopy Units","","4. Organisational Issues INTRODUCTION QUESTIONNAIRE RETURN WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS SIZE OF ENDOSCOPY UNIT OUT OF HOURS ENDOSCOPY NURSE ENDOSCOPISTS ENDOSCOPY ROOM EQUIPMENT RECOVERY AREAS RESUSCITATION FACILITIES AUDIT/GOVERNANCE MEETINGS RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  WORKLOAD OF ENDOSCOPY UNITS The number of weekly endoscopy sessions is correlated with the annual number of patients undergoing an endoscopy within an endoscopy unit (Figure 4). However, it should be noted that the data represented includes only 42% (81/194) of the hospitals that submitted a questionnaire on endoscopy facilities. Missing data has prevented us showing a complete picture. Assuming that the information was not returned because it was unknown to the hospital then one has to question how departments can operate without knowing this basic information. The BSG Report1 recommends that an average DGH performing 2,500-3,000 endoscopies per annum should allow 12-14 sessions per week which is broadly consistent with data reported in Figure 4. There is also a reasonable correlation between the number of endoscopies performed and the number of inpatient beds within the hospital (Figure 5). The data in this graph represents 74% (144/194) of the hospitals that submitted a questionnaire on endoscopy facilities. NB: Only 42% (81/194) of hospitals are represented. The remaining hospitals did not provide this information. Figure 4. Number of sessions by the annual numbers of patients undergoing endoscopy (Numbers of hospitals are indicated by the figure within the shaded boxes) NB: 74% (144/194) of hospitals are represented. The remaining hospitals did not provide this information. Figure 5. Annual number of endoscopies performed by number of inpatient beds (back to top)  ");sQ1[44]=new Array("pathology.autopsyrates.htm","13. Pathology - Autopsy Rates","","13. Pathology INTRODUCTION AUTOPSY RATES AUTOPSY REPORTS THE REFORM OF THE CORONER AND DEATH CERTIFICATION SERVICE RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  AUTOPSY RATES Key point Deaths following therapeutic endoscopy are under-reported to coroners - only 24% - and are then less likely to be examined at autopsy (only 30%) compared with the national average. In England & Wales in 2002, more than 90% of autopsies of patients outside the perinatal age group were authorised by a coroner4 5. These follow reports from clinicians who consider that the death comes into one or more of the categories that by custom, though not by law, should be reported to a coroner; the commonest of these is uncertainty over the actual cause of death. Figure 21. Deaths and autopsy rates Of the 1,818 deaths that occurred amongst patients who had undergone an endoscopic procedure within 30 days, only 27% (442/1,654) were definitely known to have been reported to a coroner (Figure 21); physicians reported a smaller proportion of deaths (22%) compared with surgeons (36%) (Table 78). These are a small proportion of the possible 100% rate of reporting, since in the standard instructions provided for doctors and bereavement affairs staff on the cases that should be reported to a coroner, it is clearly stated that deaths following procedures in hospital qualify6. Even if the 164 unanswered cases are included, where it is unclear whether or not they were reported to a coroner (but the coroner might not have accepted the case), only a maximum of 33% (606/1,818) of these deaths were reported. In 2002, the overall proportion of deaths in England & Wales reported to a coroner was 38%5, so the reporting rate in this sample is low. Table 78. Cases reported to a coroner, by senior endoscopist specialty  Total deaths Number reported to a coroner (%) Physician 1,365 294 (22) Surgeon 334 120 (36) Radiologist 34 9 (26) Nurse practitioner 8 1 (13) General practitioner 7 0 (0) Other (not specified) 4 0 (0) Sub-total 1,752 424 Not answered 66 18 (4) Total 1,818 442 Of those cases known to have been reported to a coroner, only 30% (131/442) were accepted as cases and an autopsy authorised. This contrasts with the overall average in 2002 in England & Wales, when 58% of cases reported were accepted and had an autopsy5. In addition to the known 131 coronial autopsies amongst these patients, a further 13 had a consented autopsy, where the medical certificate of cause of death (MCCD) had been completed and the clinicians requested an autopsy examination with the agreement of the relatives. Therefore only 9% (131+13 = 144/1,654) of this sample had an autopsy. Nationally, in 2002, about 23% of deaths resulted in an autopsy7, the great majority for a coroner. So this category of patient deaths is significantly under-investigated by autopsy after death compared with the national average for all causes of death. Had the average 23% of these deaths been so examined, a potential 400 cases for review would have been available, instead of one third of this number (144/400). The median age overall of the patients in the study was 78 years. Of the deaths following a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG), where the median age was 80 years, only 21% (140/653) were reported to a coroner. It suggests that deaths in the very elderly may be under-reported to the coroner when they occur in hospital, despite the fact that they follow operative procedures. The rate of consented autopsies was only 0.8% (13/1,654), which appears to be even lower than the usual current low autopsy rate for UK in-hospital deaths (~5%8) that are not reported to a coroner. The lack of interest of clinicians in the use of autopsies as part of the follow-up of their patients is probably multifactorial: • The advanced age of the patients • The knowledge that the endoscopic procedure was in many cases a palliative procedure (e.g. PEG insertion in 40% (719/1,818 patients in the study) in a patient with known advanced and probably terminal disease • The impression that the patients had already ‘had enough medical interventions’. (back to top)  ");sQ1[45]=new Array("pathology.autopsyreports.htm","13. Pathology - Autopsy Reports","","13. Pathology INTRODUCTION AUTOPSY RATES AUTOPSY REPORTS Clinical History Description of external appearances Gross descriptions of organs and operation areas Autopsy histpathology Clinico-pathological summary ONS cause of death formulation Mention of the endoscopic procedure in the autopsy report Overall quality of the autopsy examination and report Overview of the available autopsy report THE REFORM OF THE CORONER AND DEATH CERTIFICATION SERVICE RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  AUTOPSY REPORTS Of the patients autopsied, NCEPOD received reports, complete or partial, on 59% (85/144) and it was not possible to identify the source of one. Table 79 shows that 90% (76/84) were ordered by a coroner and 10% (8/84) followed consent from relatives. Table 79. Source of autopsy reports received  Total (%) Coronial 76 (90) Consent 8 (8) Undetermined 1 (1) Total 85 Clinical History All the reports of consented autopsies contained a clinical history, whilst 86% (65/76) of the coronial reports did so. These were graded as satisfactory or good in 74% (54/73) and all the 18 unsatisfactory reports were in coronial cases. One third of the unsatisfactory cases were so categorised because they failed to mention the pre-mortem endoscopy procedure or the insertion of a PEG feeding tube (even in cases where it was also mentioned in the external description). Failure to note important documented peri-mortem infections such as MRSA and Clostridium difficile were also unsatisfactory. The remaining unsatisfactory histories were telegraphic and too brief. The absence of a clinical history in autopsy reports is a long-running complaint in NCEPOD reports, particularly in coronial autopsy reports. In 2001, a similar proportion also had no such history. It is counter to established and more recent autopsy reporting guidelines, but the pathologists are not helped by an instruction given by many coroners to omit clinical histories from reports. One reason given is that the pathologist may easily make a simple factual transcription or interpretation error such as the date of an operation. This can lead relatives, if they are seeking substance for a complaint against a hospital or clinician, to cast doubt on the rest of the report and raise further and often irrelevant issues. Relatives are increasingly receiving and studying autopsy reports, and so the issue of how much detail to include about what may have been a very complicated clinical situation requires further consideration. Description of external appearances (back to top) The majority of external cadaveric descriptions (89%, 67/75) were graded as good or satisfactory. The eight unsatisfactory cases were marked as such because descriptions were absent, perfunctory, or did not mention a PEG tube or a stent. 43% (36/83) of reports did not give the height of the patient and 51% (42/83) omitted the weight. These are the same proportions as noted in 20013. Many mortuaries, anecdotally, still do not have body scales – though all have rod measures for height – and this persistent omission deprives the reports of significant detail, particularly when concerned with a group of patients who are, by definition, malnourished (i.e. candidates for PEG insertion). Gross descriptions of organs and operation areas (back to top) All but 10 of the autopsies were full standard procedures, examining all the body cavities. In nine cases, the head was not opened, and in one case the thorax was not inspected, so that the autopsy was focussed on the abdomen. This is not necessarily a critical issue, since the purpose of the autopsy is to answer questions relating to a death and if, for example, the patient is mentally alert and neurologically normal until the time of death, little is generally to be gained by examination of the brain. All autopsy guidelines indicate that organ weights must be included in reports. The justification is not so much the intrinsic usefulness of organ weights, which apart from that of the heart, is not necessarily high. It is a surrogate marker of quality, in that if weights are presented then the organs must have been inspected to a certain extent. Excluding the limited autopsies, as outlined above, one or more organs were not weighed in 9% (7/75) of cases. This is a higher proportion than noted in 20012 . 13% (11/82) of the internal organ descriptions were unacceptably poor, mainly on account of excessive brevity. Case Study  A patient who died of liver cirrhosis (although no histology was undertaken to confirm that gross diagnosis), was found to have a gut full of blood but there was no evaluation of where the source of bleeding might have been. Autopsy histopathology (back to top) Taking histological samples at autopsy is now an even more contentious subject than hitherto, with the well-publicised repercussions of pathologists taking organs at Bristol6 and Alder Hey Hospitals7 without the knowledge of the relatives of the deceased children. In consented autopsies, tissue sampling is explicitly agreed in effectively all cases, whereas in coronial autopsies it is matter of agreement between coroner and pathologist. The Coroners’ Rules9 governing tissue taking are not precise, and the net effect is a huge variation across the 127 coronial jurisdictions of England & Wales; the range being from nearly zero to 100% of cases with tissue samples being taken. Many coroners expressly forbid taking histological samples unless it is absolutely necessary to determine a cause of death or the case is one of suspected unlawful killing. This non-standardisation should change with the presaged reform of the coronial system – see below. The Royal College of Pathologists indicates that best practice involves systematic histological sampling in all cases, but the situation is complex: the need and subsequent usefulness depends on the actual questions being raised by a death. An example is death from peritonitis following perforation of previously documented benign gastric or duodenal ulcer, where autopsy histopathology provides limited additional information concerning the sequence of events leading to death. However, it must be emphasised that the highest quality autopsy reporting can only come from repeated observations and deep understanding of autopsy histopathology, which in turn demand regular and systematic tissue sampling. Table 80. Organ and tissue retention for histopathology  Number (%) Comparative % in 2002 NCEPOD report Comparative % in 2001 NCEPOD report Organs retained 3 (4) n/a n/a Tissue histology taken 31 (36) 27 28 No samples taken 49 (58) n/a n/a Unclear whether samples taken 2 (2) n/a n/a Total 85 n/a = not available In only three autopsies were whole organs retained (Table 80), but there is no current database against which to compare this figure. In two reports, it was unclear whether or not histological samples had been taken, and in only 37% (31/83) of evaluable cases was histology performed. This is actually higher than the 28% rate noted in the 2001 report but the overall sample is smaller. A histology report was returned to NCEPOD in 77% (24/31) of the cases where histology was taken. In terms of quality, i.e. the usefulness in explicating the circumstances of death, 21 were good or satisfactory and three (13%) unsatisfactory. In the latter were: • kidneys not studied although the cause of death related to renal failure • the primary origin of metastatic carcinoma not fully explored. Did the lack of histological sampling detract from the quality of the autopsy in the non-sampled cases? The advisors considered this to be the case in 24% (12/49) of cases. Case Study  A patient had therapeutic endoscopy to dilate a stricture of the oesophagus of unknown cause. The patient died of pneumonia and the stricture was noted at the autopsy but no histological sample was taken to determine whether it was benign or the result of a malignancy. Case Study  A patient with pancreatic disease required an ERCP. The autopsy report suggests that the underlying disease was carcinoma, but no histology was taken to confirm this. National statistics on gastro-intestinal cancer are not well served by this non-investigative approach. Case Study  The pathologist specifically noted that the Coroner had not permitted taking histology to investigate the aetiology of previously undiagnosed cirrhosis of the liver, which had resulted in upper GI tract bleeding, requiring banding of the oesophageal varix. However, the report was also compromised by a poor appreciation of the circumstances of death, as evidenced by lack of mention of the oesophageal varices and of the endoscopic procedure. The resulting cause of death was stated: 1a. ischaemic heart disease 2. decompensated cirrhosis. As will be discussed below, this is the wrong cause of death (cirrhosis should be in Part 1) and a misuse of the term ischaemic heart disease. Clinico-pathological summary (back to top) Key point Nearly half the autopsy reports (44%) had a poor, or no, clinico-pathological summary. While it is critical that a systematic autopsy and report are essential to identify and consider all aspects of a death where there has been uncertainty, it is increasingly emphasised in guidelines4 that the construction of an overview clinico-pathological summary, containing all the essential features of a case, is an essential part of an autopsy report. The summary is there to answer (if possible) the questions raised by a death, more descriptively than the necessarily compressed formulation of the ONS standard death certification lines. In this sample, the proportion of autopsy reports that included such a summary was the same (63%, 53/84) as that reported in 20012. Of these 11% (6/53) were graded as unsatisfactory, making a grand total of 44% (37/84) of reports that had either no clinico-pathological summary or an unsatisfactory one. In addition to examples quoted above and below, other poor summaries included a lack of discussion on the significance of a colon stent that had evidently moved after insertion and the contribution of ERCP in causing fatal sepsis of the biliary tree. ONS cause of death formulation (back to top) Key point Depiction of the cause of death sequence (i.e. the death certificate) by pathologists was not consistent with the clinical and pathological data in one third of cases. A constant lament from the Office of National Statistics10 is the poor quality of construction and completion of the Medical Certificate of Cause of Death (MCCD). This relates not just to the actual diseases indicated (although the Home Office considers that about 30% of death certificates are significantly incorrect in that respect7), but also to the logical depiction of disease states and sequence, ending with the main clinical pathology as the lowest line of ‘Part 1’of the MCCD. ‘Part 2’ of the MCCD should include only additional diseases that contributed to death or the timing of death, but not the main disease that resulted in death. Diseases listed in ‘Part 2’ are not included in the annual ONS tabulations of causes of death for the nation. So placing the main disease in this part inevitably distorts the statistical appreciation of disease burden. In consented autopsies, the MCCD has already been completed and registered by the time of autopsy. In coronial autopsies, the pathologist is effectively writing the death certificate, since the coroner will take his/her formulation (sometimes modified by an inquest) and copy it into the death certificate. Table 81. Evaluation of the content and structure of death certificate statements in autopsy reports.  Evaluable reports Number incorrect (%) Depiction of circumstances of death 85 29 (34) Structure of the MCCD 76 10 (13) All but five autopsy reports included an ONS standard formulation, and these were consented autopsies where there is no necessity to include an ONS cause of death if the clinico-pathological summary has already discussed the circumstances of death. However, guidelines4 do recommend the formulation in all autopsy reports, in part because it should concentrate the mind of the pathologist on what really happened. 13% (10/76) of the evaluable causes of death were incorrectly structured (Table 81), and 34% (29/85) were considered by the panel not to reflect correctly the real circumstances of the death as evidenced from the autopsy reports. The following case studies illustrate typical examples of incorrectly completed MCCDs. Case Study  A patient dies following stent and resection of a colon cancer, with metastases to the liver. There was moderate coronary artery disease in the heart. The cause of death was stated to be: 1a. Cardio-respiratory failure 1b. Ischaemic heart disease 2. Surgically resected carcinoma of colon. The carcinoma was obviously the major determinant of the patient’s final illness and death. Better would be: 1a. Disseminated carcinoma 1b. Cancer of colon (operation and date) 2. Ischaemic heart disease. Case Study  In an otherwise excellent report, including histology, of a patient who died of cholangio-carcinoma, and who also had documented 60-70% stenoses of the coronary arteries, the cause of death was stated to be: 1a. Myocardial insult due to anaemia following ERCP (August 2002) 1b. ischaemic heart disease. The mention of the operative procedure and its date fulfils the updated guidelines on MCCD formulation, but the non-inclusion of what was the main actual cause of death – the carcinoma – is odd. Better would be: 1a. Cholangio-carcinoma (ERCP August 2002) 2. Ischaemic heart disease. The ischaemic heart disease (if the 60-70% coronary artery stenoses were significantly obstructive) perhaps contributed to the timing of the death, but was not the fundamental cause. Case Study  A patient with myasthenia gravis was progressively malnourished and required a PEG for feeding, but died. At autopsy he had “severe coronary atheroma”, but no evident acute myocardial infarction. A clinico-pathological summary was not included, and the cause of death was stated to be: 1a. Myocardial infarction 1b. Coronary artery atheroma. The myasthenia gravis was not mentioned, yet must have been the major underlying disease that resulted in the patient's death; the ischaemic heart disease should be in Part 2 as a contributor to the timing of death. Therefore in our opinion the certificate should read: 1a. Malnutrition 1b. Myasthenia gravis (PEG tube inserted and date) 2. Ischaemic heart disease. Case Study  A patient died of dysphagia and malnutrition due to a large obstructing thyroid goitre. No clinico-pathological summary was included. The cause of death: 1a. Pulmonary embolism 1b. Septicaemia 1c. Bronchopneumonia 2. Multinodular goitre. Better would have been: 1a. Sepsis and malnutrition 1b. Multinodular goitre obstructing the oesophagus 2. Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. The fundamental cause of death was the large thyroid, not the pulmonary embolism. Case Study  A patient had gall stones. Following ERCP they developed sepsis and heart failure. The report states “Biliary tract patent. Hepatic duct dilated with abscess formation. Gall bladder normal”. There was no clinico-pathological summary, but the cause of death was stated: 1a. Ischaemic heart disease 2. Hepatic duct abscess. There was no mention of the underlying cause of hepatic duct abscess – gall stone disease – and no discussion of the role of ERCP in the development of an abscess and fatal sepsis. Better would have been: 1a. Cholangitis and sepsis 1b. Gallstones in bile duct (ERCP and date) 2. Ischaemic heart disease. These examples demonstrate a consistent tendency throughout the autopsy reports studied of this sample, and in general observation of autopsy reports by the review panel, to pick on a readily observable pathology as the cause of death, rather than consider more deeply the relative contribution of all pathologies and procedures that resulted in the death. In an elderly population, a high proportion of patients has a degree of coronary artery disease that, according to circumstance, could be consistent with causing an acute cardiac arrest or arrhythmia. But the real causes of death are often elsewhere, and this practice reflects lazy thinking among pathologists. It contributes to blurring of national statistics on cause of death, with over-emphasis on common cardiovascular disease and under-representation of the necessarily more complicated multiple pathologies found in an elderly population. Mention of the endoscopic procedure in the autopsy report (back to top) Only 18% (15/85) of the autopsy reports mentioned the procedure in the cause of death formulation. Updated guidelines4 indicate that relevant pre-mortem interventions should be listed and dated in the cause of death, but there is no clarity on what constitutes a relevant intervention. Does a PEG feeding tube that has caused no direct complication (e.g. peritonitis) count as a mentionable procedure, in contrast to a stent that perforates a viscus, which evidently does? NCEPOD considers that it does. Overall quality of the autopsy examination and report (back to top) Taking all aspects of the autopsy reports into consideration, the advisors judged that 71% (60/85) of the reports were satisfactory to excellent (Table 82). The small number of unacceptable reports indicated circumstances in which the pathologists could find themselves open to criticism from a professional body for producing low standard, uninformative and incorrect work. The distribution of quality scores is broadly similar to those noted in the recent NCEPOD reports1 2. Table 82. Overall quality of autopsy examination and report  Number (%) Comparative % in 2002 NCEPOD report n = 499 Comparative % in 2001 NCEPOD report n = 346 Excellent 5 (6) 5 5 Good 27 (32) 19 21 Satisfactory 28 (33) 40 43 Poor 18 (21) 33 28 Unacceptable 4 (5) 2 2 Unevaluable 3 (4) - - Total 85 Overview of the available autopsy reports (back to top) Most of the advisors’ criticisms of the autopsy reports are familiar repeats from previous reports: • lack of clinical history • imperfect description of external and internal appearances • lack of mention of pre-mortem endoscopic procedures • lack of histological sampling where it matters • lack of a clinico-pathological summary • omitting mention of the intervention procedure on the cause of death statement • imperfect formulation of the cause of death in terms of structure and content. What is particularly striking from this review is the very small number of cases that actually had an autopsy. 27% (442/1,654) of the deaths were reported to a coroner, who accepted only 31% (131/416) of them for further examination, and a further 0.8% (13/1,654) of cases resulted in a consented autopsy. The categories of deaths that should be reported to a coroner are not laid down in statute, but it is generally agreed that the following principles apply11 : • if the death occurred during an operation or before full recovery from the effects of an anaesthetic or was in any way related to the anaesthetic (in any event a death within 24 hours should normally be reported) • if the death may be related to a medical procedure or treatment, whether invasive or not • if the death may be related to lack of medical care. Following these criteria, a greater proportion of the deaths in this sample should have been reported to a coroner; the lowest rate of referral was among patients endoscoped by physicians (only 22%). It is the responsibility of clinicians, who themselves may be liable to criticism concerning their care of a patient, to report a death under his care to the coroner if that death is related to a procedure he has undertaken. The anomalies of the current system should be addressed in the reform of the ‘Coroner and Death Certification Service’ which is discussed below. Previous NCEPOD reports have not considered this issue since the data on reporting rates were not requested. There may be an increase in reporting and further investigation of deaths following procedures if the recommendations of the review of the coronial and death certification systems develop into actual practice. (back to top)  ");sQ1[46]=new Array("pathology.intro.htm","13. Pathology- Introduction","","13. Pathology INTRODUCTION AUTOPSY RATES AUTOPSY REPORTS THE REFORM OF THE CORONER AND DEATH CERTIFICATION SERVICE RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  13. PATHOLOGY INTRODUCTION The sample for analysis was small, only 85 autopsy reports available from 1,818 deaths in the study, and hence the conclusions to be drawn are more limited, in comparison with recent NCEPOD reports. These looked at a 10% sample of all perioperative deaths up to 30 days following surgery1, and all perioperative deaths up to three days following surgery2, which reviewed 350 and 500 autopsy reports respectively. The standards used for assessing autopsy reports were the 1993 Royal College of Pathologists guidelines3, although in the qualitative assessment of quality, note was also made of the more recently issued Royal College Guidelines for Autopsy Practice4, which were issued midway through the time of the study. Also the advisors were familiar with the recent NCEPOD reports on autopsy report quality, and focussed on quality issues that have been repeatedly emphasised in these reports for more than a decade.   ");sQ1[47]=new Array("pathology.recs.htm","13. Pathology - Recommendations","","13. Pathology INTRODUCTION AUTOPSY RATES AUTOPSY REPORTS THE REFORM OF THE CORONER AND DEATH CERTIFICATION SERVICE RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  Recommendations The operative procedure should be included in the cause of death statement. Post-procedure deaths (i.e. those occurring during or within 24 hours of anaesthesia or sedation or those where it is known that the procedure is implicated in the death) should be reported to the coroner. Pathologists should think more carefully about all the clinical circumstances of a death, to produce an autopsy report more useful for clinical governance and audit. NCEPOD supports the reforms of the coronial system and death certification, which will result in better scrutiny of deaths.  ");sQ1[48]=new Array("pathology.references.htm","13. Pathology - References","","13. Pathology INTRODUCTION AUTOPSY RATES AUTOPSY REPORTS THE REFORM OF THE CORONER AND DEATH CERTIFICATION SERVICE RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Functioning as a team. The 2002 Report of the National Confidential Enquiry into Perioperative Deaths. NCEPOD. London, 2002. www.ncepod.org.uk/2002.htm 2 Changing the way we operate. The 2001 Report of the National Confidential Enquiry into Perioperative Deaths. NCEPOD. London, 2001. www.ncepod.org.uk/2001.htm 3 Allen R. Deaths reported to Coroners, England & Wales, 2002. Home Office. London, 2003. www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/hosb603.pdf 4 Guidelines on autopsy practice. Report of a working Group of the Royal College of Pathologists. The Royal College of Pathologists. London, 2002. www.rcpath.org/index.php?PageID=277 5 Guidelines for post mortem reports. Royal College of Pathologists. London, 1993. www.rcpath.org/index.php?PageID=213 6 The Inquiry into the management of care of children receiving complex heart surgery at The Bristol Royal Infirmary. Interim Report. Removal and retention of human material. The Bristol Royal Infirmary Inquiry. 2000. www.bristol-inquiry.org.uk/interim_report/pdf/report.pdf 7 Death Certification and Investigation in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. The report of a fundamental review 2003. Home Office, 2003. www.official documents.co.uk/document/cm58/5831/5831.pdf 8 Royal College of Pathologists, pers comm 9 Coroners’ Rules (1984). HMSO, London, 1984 10 Devis T, Rooney C. Death certification and the epidemiologist. Health Statistics Quarterly 1, Spring 1999. 11 Dorries C. Coroners’ Courts: A guide to law and practice. Second edition. Oxford University Press, 2004 12 Reforming the coroner and death certifications systems. A Position Paper. Home Office, 2004 13 Roberts IS, Benbow EW, Bisset R, Jenkins JP, Lee SH, Reid H, Jackson A. Accuracy of magnetic resonance imaging in determining cause of sudden death in adults: comparison with conventional autopsy. Histopathology, 2003; 42(5):424-30 (back to top)  ");sQ1[49]=new Array("pathology.reform.htm","13. Pathology - The Reform of the Coroner","","13. Pathology INTRODUCTION AUTOPSY RATES AUTOPSY REPORTS THE REFORM OF THE CORONER AND DEATH CERTIFICATION SERVICE RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  THE REFORM OF THE CORONER AND DEATH CERTIFICATION SERVICE Under the proposed new ‘Coroner and Death Certification System’12, all deaths – whether in the community or hospital – will be reported to and scrutinised by a medically qualified medical examiner (ME), who will consult with the certifying clinician on the cause of death. If the ME considers that further investigation, including autopsy, is required, there will be consultation with the regional coroner. The criteria for authorising an autopsy will probably remain similar to those currently operating, but it is intended that there be more national consistency in the proportion of cases resulting in autopsy and in the scope of those examinations. A positive intention is to facilitate the better use of post-mortem medical examinations in clinical governance, including mortality audit. The ME will advise on the minimum level of invasiveness of autopsies, including possibly the use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) evaluation in place of standard dissection and organ examination. Unless and until the use of MRI is properly validated, this has serious implications for the value of autopsies in future NCEPOD studies since it is not evident that MRI technology is as sensitive as open examination in determining the circumstances of post-intervention deaths13. The usefulness of MRI in evaluating perioperative deaths, as opposed to deaths in the community, is so far unexplored and it may be that the current capacity of MRI machines could not cope. Another potentially detrimental aspect of the proposed reforms of the coronial system is further pressure not to take organs and tissue samples for histopathology. As paragraph 67 of the position paper states12, ‘retention should only take place where absolutely necessary’ (our emphasis). It is the view of NCEPOD that this will necessarily inhibit pathologists further in seeking to investigate post-intervention deaths fully, since there is already no uniformity and clarity about taking histopathology samples. The results will not be to the benefit of clinical governance and, ultimately, of the public. A new position, that of Medical Adviser to the Chief Coroner, is proposed under the coronial system reform, and that person should have a significant influence upon the national standards of autopsy performance. It is important for pathological organisations in the UK to continue to emphasise and publicise the significance and benefits to the families and to the medical profession of the well-performed and reported autopsy in the audit and improvement of standards of medical care. This is a view that NCEPOD has consistently held since its inception. In the current medico-political climate, there is intended to be a reduction in the proportion of deaths that eventuate in an autopsy – England & Wales has a significantly higher overall autopsy rate than countries with comparable medico-legal systems7. If this reduction is inevitable, it is important that the autopsy firstly is focussed on those cases where the information will be the most useful, particularly those following medical interventions, and secondly is performed well and to measurable quality standards. (back to top)  ");sQ1[50]=new Array("patientassessment.appropriate.htm","5. Patient Assessment - Appropriate Procedure?","","5. Patient Assessment INTRODUCTION PRE-ENDOSCOPY PATIENT OVERVIEW CLINICAL INFORMATION APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE? RECOMMENDATION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE? Key point 14% of procedures were judged as inappropriate and 17% of procedures were performed at an inappropriate time. Advisors were asked to decide in the light of the severity of the patient’s condition, whether the type and the timing of the procedure were appropriate for the clinical scenario (Table 11). Table 11. Appropriateness of procedure as determined by the advisors  Yes No Insufficient information to assess Type of procedure appropriate 1,395 230 193 Timing of procedure appropriate 1,287 258 273 Type and timing of procedure appropriate 1,225 0 593 The type of endoscopy was appropriate in 86% (1,395/1,625) of patients, and at an appropriate time in the admission in 83% (1,287/1,545). 63% of the procedures, where the type of procedure was deemed inappropriate, were thought to be futile (145/230) and the remainder were unnecessary. Amongst the 258 procedures where the timing was deemed inappropriate, 135 were too late to be of any benefit and 21 were too early. Almost all of the patients in these two categories had PEGs placed, and further details can be found in the chapter on PEGs. Inappropriate ERCPs were also common; these were performed especially on patients with disseminated malignancy. Case Study  An elderly patient had a pancreatic mass and metastases in the liver, with no evidence of bile duct dilatation on either ultrasound or CT scanning. The pre-procedural INR was 1.7. The patient received 8 mg of midazolam and 50 mg of pethidine. The ERCP showed a duodenal stricture and narrowing of the common bile duct with no proximal dilatation. A “palliative stent” was inserted. The patient died three weeks later. This was a procedure that would not have been of any benefit to the patient, who also received excessive sedation, compounded by the effect of the liver disease on drug breakdown. (back to top)  ");sQ1[51]=new Array("patientassessment.clinicalinfo.htm","5. Patient Assessment - Clinical Information","","5. Patient Assessment INTRODUCTION PRE-ENDOSCOPY PATIENT OVERVIEW CLINICAL INFORMATION APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE? RECOMMENDATION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  CLINICAL INFORMATION Clinicians were asked to provide information on the investigations and physiological measurements made before the procedure. Unfortunately, documentation of patient’s pre-procedural investigations was limited and there are no obvious reasons as to why this section was so poorly completed. From the limited data, 71 patients were shocked, as defined by a tachycardia (pulse rate greater than or equal to 100 bpm) and hypotension (systolic blood pressure less than or equal to 90 mmHg). In addition, three had both a bradycardia (pulse rate less than or equal to 50 bpm) and hypotension. Were all appropriate efforts made to improve the patients’ condition before the procedures were carried out? Key point The patient's weight was recorded in only 24% of cases. Data concerning the patient’s weight were returned in only 24% (429/1,818) of cases (Table 10). Table 10. Number of cases where weight was been recorded Procedure Total Number where weight recorded (%) PEG 719 143 (20) ERCP 237 65 (27) Upper GI 809 209 (26) Lower GI 53 12 (23) The widespread failure to record patients’ weight is surprising. The patient’s weight is helpful when judging the doses of sedation for endoscopic procedures especially in those who are frail and sick. The weight is also an important marker of nutritional status but the proportion of patients weighed was lowest for the group of patients undergoing a PEG procedure. In nearly all cases it was possible to move the patient to another location prior to their endoscopic procedure so there can be few excuses for failing to weigh patients. Advisors found that in many cases the correct investigations had not been carried out before procedures; for example, advisors judged that patients scheduled for ERCP should have their bilirubin level and clotting status checked before the procedure. In 93% (221/237) of patients the bilirubin level was available. However, in 80% (189/237) of ERCP patients there was no record of a clotting study having been performed. When appropriate investigations were performed, abnormal results were disregarded. Case Study  An ERCP was done for common bile duct stones, despite the patient’s haemoglobin of 7.0gm/dl and INR of 2.6. The advisors thought the procedure was appropriate, but should only have been done after the patient's condition was optimised. Did the endoscopist see the test results before the ERCP? Did they appreciate the significance of the results? As with any patient assessment it is always important to listen to the patient. Case Study  A GP referred an elderly patient who was complaining of poor fluid intake and loss of appetite. Investigations showed extensive mediastinal tumour probably from a previous lung cancer. An OGD revealed a length of abnormal oesophageal mucosa but there was no evidence of malignancy on biopsy which might have indicated a need for a therapeutic procedure. In the notes the dietician had written “eating all meals, increasing appetite, BMI =22.7”. Despite this evidence a stent was inserted at a subsequent OGD. (back to top)  ");sQ1[52]=new Array("patientassessment.intro.htm","5. Patient Assessment - Introduction","","5. Patient Assessment INTRODUCTION PRE-ENDOSCOPY PATIENT OVERVIEW CLINICAL INFORMATION APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE? RECOMMENDATION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  5. PATIENT ASSESSMENT INTRODUCTION Endoscopy, both diagnostic and therapeutic, is a high volume, predominantly day case, procedure. According to the advisors’ experience there is often no prior assessment to determine whether patients are suitable for endoscopy until the day of the procedure. Although patients may have been reviewed in the clinic before endoscopy, they may have to wait several months for their investigation during which time their clinical condition may have changed. Similarly, inpatients are rarely reviewed by the endoscopist before the procedure, unless they are a member of the team caring for the patient. There has been a paucity of studies that have examined patient selection1 2 . A recent report from Ireland identified a 16% 30 day mortality following PEG placement in 205 patients, indicating that selection criteria for this procedure may need to be refined1. In addition, careful patient selection can reduce the risk of ERCP associated pancreatitis. Patients are at a greater risk of pancreatitis if they have certain combinations of characteristics that include females, normal serum bilirubin, recurrent abdominal pain, and previous post-ERCP pancreatitis2. However, it is likely that those at greatest risk will be inpatients, because they will be sicker than those who are outpatients; those who have comorbidities (with an increased number of comorbidities associated with greater risk); and those who need immediate or emergency endoscopy. Clinicians should recognise that the general condition of inpatients undergoing endoscopy is likely to be different to the condition of routine outpatient endoscopy patients. (back to top)  ");sQ1[53]=new Array("patientassessment.patientoverview.htm","5. Patient Assessment - Pre-endoscopy Patient Overview","","5. Patient Assessment INTRODUCTION PRE-ENDOSCOPY PATIENT OVERVIEW CLINICAL INFORMATION APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE? RECOMMENDATION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  PRE-ENDOSCOPY PATIENT OVERVIEW This study is not a review of a sample of all patients undergoing therapeutic endoscopy; it is a study of inpatients who died within 30 days of a therapeutic endoscopy which reflects a very small percentage of patients undergoing this procedure. Most of these inpatients, 91% (1,619/1,774), had been admitted as an emergency and in 44 cases the admission method was unknown. One part of the endoscopy questionnaire required clinicians to provide an assessment of the patient’s risk of death within 30 days of the proposed procedure. In the majority of cases where information was provided (74%, 1,303/1,753), death was either a definite risk (60%, 1,056/1,753) or expected (14%, 247/1,753). These values are reflected in the patient’s ASA status (Table 7). Key point Most patients, 85%, were deemed to have an ASA status of 3 or poorer. Table 7. Pre-endoscopy condition ASA Status None Small Definate Expected Sub-total Not answered Total 1 2 10 12 4 28 1 29 2 61 47 97 15 220 2 222 3 157 50 355 46 608 11 619 4 72 20 464 97 653 8 661 5 9 0 91 77 177 1 178 Sub-total 301 127 1,019 239 1,686 23 1,709 Not answered 15 7 37 8 67 42 109 Total (%) 316 (18) 134 (8) 1,056 (60) 247 (14) 1,753 65 1,818 Case Study  A very elderly patient was admitted following a severe stroke. After five weeks in hospital oral feeding was judged to be inadequate. Although their condition was very poor, assessed as ASA 5, a PEG was inserted. The patient deteriorated after the procedure and a decision was made to give only palliative care. The patient died two weeks after the PEG insertion. In this case the endoscopist should have recognised that the severity of the patient’s condition should have precluded this procedure. The opinion of the advisors was that there was no benefit to the patient’s care, even in the two-week period before death. Issues relating to PEG insertion are discussed in more detail in a separate chapter later in this report. Key point Two or more co-existing medical conditions were present in 76% of patients. Information was collected on the patients’ concurrent medical conditions. Table 8. Co-existing medical conditions (answers may be multiple) Co-existing medical condition Total n = 1,755 Respiratory COPD 274 Acute chest infection 456 Asthma 65 Cardiac Ischaemic heart disease/previous MI/angina 473 MI within three months of the endoscopy 44 Valvular heart disease 69 Neurological CCF (at present or in the past) 253 CVA/TIAs 548 Dementia 197 Acute confusion state 127 Psychiatric disease 61 Parkinson’s disease 58 Hepatic/pancreatic 411 Alimentary 218 Renal failure Acute 179 Chronic 122 Endocrine Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus 167 Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus 51 Hypothyroidism 53 Musculoskeletal 181 Haematological Bleeding disorder 73 Immunosupression 25 Sepsis 164 Other 534 Total 4,803 None 79 Not answered 63 Co-existing medical conditions were present in all except 79 patients (Table 8), with two or more conditions in 76% (1,341/1,755), and greater than 4 in 14% (249/1,755) (Table 9). It is interesting to note that cerebrovascular disease was the commonest co-existent condition, and this is likely to reflect the age distribution of the patients in this study. Table 9. Count of co-existing medical conditions by procedure Procedure 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 Sub-total Not answered Total PEG 13 99 201 157 116 67 34 10 1 1 1 1 701 18 719 ERCP 27 56 47 39 28 16 7 7 0 0 0 0 227 10 237 Upper GI 37 174 223 146 102 56 22 10 7 1 1 0 779 30 809 Lower GI 2 6 14 8 11 4 1 1 1 0 0 0 48 5 53 Total (%) 79 (5) 335 (19) 485 (28) 350 (20) 257 (15) 143 (8) 64 (4) 28 (2) 9 (<1) 2 (<1) 2 (<1) 1 (<1) 1,755 63 1,818 (back to top)  ");sQ1[54]=new Array("patientassessment.recs.htm","5. Patient Assessment - Recommendation","","5. Patient Assessment INTRODUCTION PRE-ENDOSCOPY PATIENT OVERVIEW CLINICAL INFORMATION APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE? RECOMMENDATION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  Recommendation Patients must be assessed by the referring clinician and the endoscopist to justify that the procedure is in the patient’s interest.    ");sQ1[55]=new Array("patientassessment.references.htm","5. Patient Assessment - References","","5. Patient Assessment INTRODUCTION PRE-ENDOSCOPY PATIENT OVERVIEW CLINICAL INFORMATION APPROPRIATE PROCEDURE? RECOMMENDATION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Sheehan JJ, Hill AD, Fanning NP, Healy C, McDermott EW, O’Donoghue DP, O’Higgins NJ. Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy: 5 years of clinical experience on 238 patients. Ir Med J. 2003; 96(9):265-67 2 Freeman ML, DiSario JA, Nelson DB, Fennerty MB, Lee JG, Bjorkman DJ, Overby CS, Aas J, Ryan ME, Bochna GS, Shaw MJ, Snady HW, Erickson RV, Moore JP, Roel JP. Risk factors for post ERCP pancreatitis: a prospective, multicenter study. Gastrointest Endosc 2001; 54(4):425-34  ");sQ1[56]=new Array("patientconsent.documenting.htm","6. Patient Consent - Documenting Consent","","6. Patient Consent INTRODUCTION DOCUMENTING CONSENT SEEKING CONSENT RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  DOCUMENTING CONSENT Table 12. Written consent Written consent obtained Total (%) Yes 979 (79) No 254 (21) Sub-total 1,233 Not answered 585 Total 1,818 NCEPOD asked whether written consent was obtained (Table 12) and 32% (585/1,818) of responders did not answer this question. It may be that the respondents failed to locate the document in what may on occasions be bulky casenotes. Consent for a medical intervention is a legal requirement, and the casenotes should contain a copy of the written consent. If the patient is not able to provide consent the clinical notes should explain the circumstances. There should be a record of why they are unable to, any discussions with the patient and their level of understanding, and any discussions that took place with the patient's relatives or carers. The medical notes should be able to demonstrate that the decision to proceed without the patient’s consent was taken by the medical staff in the patient's best interest. It became apparent during the advisors’ review of casenotes that some did contain this information, but many did not. The written consent should accurately reflect the planned procedure. Review of the casenotes revealed a spectrum of detail on the consent forms, from those that included the risks of the procedure to some which stated "gastroscopy", with no indication as to the therapeutic procedure that was planned, or the risks. Examples of consent forms that provide information, including specifically the risks of gastroscopy, colonoscopy and ERCP, are published in the BSG guidelines for consent for endoscopic procedures2. This document gives valuable standards on the risks that should be discussed with the patients and what should be recorded. There is a case for standardised endoscopy consent forms for most endoscopy procedures – both diagnostic and therapeutic. A number of centres use computer-generated reports for procedures and some state by default that written consent has been obtained. If written consent has not been obtained the endoscopist should adjust the computer record accordingly; not leave an erroneous entry. (back to top)  ");sQ1[57]=new Array("patientconsent.intro.htm","6. Patient Consent - Patient Consent","","6. Patient Consent INTRODUCTION DOCUMENTING CONSENT SEEKING CONSENT RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  6. PATIENT CONSENT INTRODUCTION Consent for any medical intervention is a legal requirement. The General Medical Council (GMC)1, the British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG)2 and the Department of Health3 have produced guidance on the legal and ethical considerations when seeking patient consent. This section is not intended to reproduce those guidelines, but to highlight the specific concerns that were raised by case review of this sample. Key points In 32% of cases, clinicians did not answer the question as to whether consent had been provided for the procedure. Written consent was provided by 66% of patients with dementia or acute confusion who may not have had the capacity to consent.   ");sQ1[58]=new Array("patientconsent.recs.htm","6. Patient Consent - Recommendations","","6. Patient Consent INTRODUCTION DOCUMENTING CONSENT SEEKING CONSENT RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  Recommendations The risks and benefits of therapeutic endoscopy should be explained to the patient, and this should be documented on the consent forms as laid down in the Department of Health guidelines. The ability of those with dementia or acute confusion to provide consent should be tested and clearly documented.  ");sQ1[59]=new Array("patientconsent.references.htm","6. Patient Consent - References","","6. Patient Consent INTRODUCTION DOCUMENTING CONSENT SEEKING CONSENT RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Seeking patients’ consent: the ethical considerations. General Medical Council, 1998. www.gmc-uk.org/standards/consent.htm 2 Guidelines for informed consent for endoscopic procedures. British Society of Gastroenterology, 1999. www.bsg.org.uk/pdf_word_docs/consent.pdf 3 Good practice in consent implementation guide: consent to examination or treatment. Department of Health, 2001. www.dh.gov.uk/assetRoot/04/01/90/61/04019061.pdf 4 Withholding and withdrawing life-prolonging treatments: Good practice in decision-making. General Medical Council, 2002. www.gmc-uk.org/standards/whwd.htm 5 Consent and refusal of treatment. UK Clinical Ethics Network, 2003. www.ethics-network.org.uk/Ethics/printer/consent.htm   ");sQ1[60]=new Array("patientconsent.seekingcontent.htm","6. Patient Consent - Seeking Consent","","6. Patient Consent INTRODUCTION DOCUMENTING CONSENT SEEKING CONSENT Providing information Informing decision Respecting autonomy Capacity to consent RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  SEEKING CONSENT Providing information Patients have a right to understand their condition and the options available to them, and that includes the details of the treatment1. NCEPOD advisors expressed disquiet regarding the extent and quality of information that some patients may have received before entering the endoscopy room. This was particularly so in cases where the decision for a PEG insertion was made by non-medical staff, e.g. speech and language therapists, nutritionists or nursing staff without reference to medical staff. Informing decision (back to top) Patients have a right to know the prognosis if the condition is left untreated. In an attempt to quantify concerns about consent NCEPOD asked its advisors to decide whether the procedure was appropriate and, if not, why not (Table 13). In 14% (230/1,625) of cases the advisors thought the procedure inappropriate and in a further 92 cases they had some doubt. Table 13. Reasons why the procedure was inappropriate (answers may be multiple) Reason Total n = 230 A different endoscopic procedure was indicated 8 Surgery in the first instance would have been more appropriate 1 No endoscopic procedure was indicated 55 Futile procedure 145 Other 41 Total 250 The high numbers of procedures considered futile and where no endoscopic procedure was indicated are of particular concern. Futile procedures were those in which death was considered inevitable with or without the endoscopic procedure. Those where no endoscopic procedure was indicated were mostly patients with disseminated carcinoma, or some other condition where the procedure could not reasonably offer improved quality of life. Were these patients provided information on the risks and benefits of the procedure they were to undergo? Of course, it is easier to determine futility with the benefit of hindsight and a further study to look at this issue in more detail may be called for. Real dilemmas for the endoscopist arise when the clinician encounters unforeseen findings. What is the sensible way to proceed? Case Study  A patient was undergoing a diagnostic OGD when the endoscopist saw blood in the base of a peptic ulcer. There was no history of haematemesis or melaena and the patient had a Hb of 11.5gm/dl. The ulcer was injected with adrenaline, and the patient subsequently suffered a perforation. Respecting autonomy (back to top) A patient who is of sound mind has the right to withhold consent, irrespective of the medical advice. There were several cases in which patients withheld consent until coerced into a procedure, particularly for insertion of a PEG after a stroke. Clearly this is not acceptable; it reflects the clinician's view of what is in the best interest for the patient, not the patient’s view. However, dilemmas on respecting autonomy such as the following case are less clear-cut. Case Study  A patient was admitted from a residential home where they had been in respite care. In the early hours of the morning the patient was found to be less responsive and had passed a melaena stool. Later that day a diagnostic upper GI endoscopy revealed oesophagitis, a discrete oesophageal ulcer, a large amount of blood in the stomach and a 1 cm acute duodenal ulcer. Two days later, after 3 units of blood and with a Hb of 9.9gm/dl, the patient was refusing further medical treatment and refusing to return to respite care. Three days later the patient collapsed with melaena and was given a blood transfusion. Later that day, and without written consent, an experienced SpR performed an oesophagogastroscopy, during which the duodenal ulcer was injected with adrenaline. The bleeding could not be stopped and the case was discussed with the surgeon who, in view of the patient’s age, frailty and previously expressed wishes, thought surgery not indicated. It is evident that in the patient’s collapsed state they were unable to provide consent for the second gastroscopy. Was it appropriate to proceed given the patient’s express wishes after the first endoscopy? The circumstances above make the decision to proceed difficult. However, the GMC states that the expressed wishes of the patient must take precedent. “Any valid advance refusal of treatment - one made when the patient was competent and on the basis of adequate information about his/her choice - is legally binding and must be respected where it is clearly applicable to the patient's present circumstances and where there is no reason to believe that the patient had changed his/her mind”4. In the case above, was the advance directive of this patient valid? Capacity to consent (back to top) 16% (290/1,818) of patients were suffering from dementia or acute confusion. Those patients that were reported to be suffering from dementia or acute confusion who provided written consent are presented in Table 14. Table 14. Written consent for those with dementia and/or acute confusion Written consent obtained Total (%) Yes 134 (66) No 70 (34) Sub-total 204 Not answered 86 (30) Total 290 We were surprised to find that in these patients written consent was obtained in 66% (134/204). This is of concern given the guidance now available from the Department of Health on consent and patients without the medical capacity to consent to medical treatment. From the casenote review it was difficult to judge the extent of dementia or confusion for many of the patients. Nevertheless, with this diagnosis their capacity to consent must be questioned. An adult is presumed to have the capacity to consent if they can comprehend and retain treatment information, believe it and weigh it up to arrive at a choice5. If a patient has a diagnosis of dementia then the capacity to retain treatment information should be tested. The advisor’s opinion from case review was that often the process of obtaining consent was not transparent and in 18% (322/1,818) of cases the benefits of the procedure were doubtful. Since April 2002, new consent forms stating the risks of a procedure have been available and since April 2003, the closure of data collection for this study, the Department of Health has directed that they be used. Included is a form to be signed by the clinician that makes a decision on behalf of a patient without the capacity to consent to medical treatment3. Use of these consent forms should provide greater clarity around issues of consent and decisions made on behalf of patients, including those with dementia. The evidence from this chapter suggests that local audit based on issues surrounding consent is indicated. (back to top)  ");sQ1[61]=new Array("pegs.intro.htm","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy - Introduction","","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE PREOPERATIVE ASSESSMENT AND PREPARATION OPERATIVE EVENTS POSTOPERATIVE OUTCOME RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  9. PERCUTANEOUS ENDOSCOPIC GASTROSTOMY INTRODUCTION Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) for enteral feeding has been used since 19801 and it is indicated in those patients where enteral feeding is likely to be needed for more than four to six weeks2 ; the indications for its use are shown in Table 27. The procedure of inserting a PEG is straightforward for most patients and it has advantages over nasogastric feeding in that it is more comfortable, less unsightly and less prone to becoming displaced. However, it is invasive and may result in complications, and therefore the appropriateness of its use needs careful consideration in every case. Table 27. Indications for the use of PEG feeding2 Indication Example Neurological disorders of swallowing Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), multiple sclerosis, motor neurone disease, Parkinson's disease, cerebral palsy Cognitive impairment and depressed consciousness Head injury Mechanical obstruction to swallowing Oropharyngeal or oesophageal cancer, radiation enteropathy Long term partial failure of intestinal function requiring supplemental intake Short bowel, fistulae, cystic fibrosis (back to top)  ");sQ1[62]=new Array("pegs.operative.htm","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy - Operative Events","","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE PREOPERATIVE ASSESSMENT AND PREPARATION OPERATIVE EVENTS Sedation and monitoring POSTOPERATIVE OUTCOME RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  OPERATIVE EVENTS Key points In 6% of PEG procedures no oxygen was administered. 30% of patients had combined topical anaesthesia and sedation. 9% of patients required reversal of sedation following their PEG insertion. Table 33. Critical incidents during PEG procedures (answers may be multiple) Critical incident Total n = 660 Cardiac arrest 1 Hypoxaemia (SpO2 less than or equal to 90%) 21 Hypotension (systolic less than or equal to 100mm Hg) 2 Tachycardia (greater than or equal to 100 beats/minute) 8 Local haemorrhage 1 Viscus perforation 1 Other 5 Total 39 None 622 Not answered 59 Hypoxaemia, the most frequently reported critical event (Table 33), occurred in 3% (21/660) of cases where information was received. However, it is thought that critical events were under-reported as the review of casenotes by advisors revealed several instances of hypoxaemia and perforated viscus which were not acknowledged in the associated questionnaires. Sedation and monitoring (back to top) For further comments on sedation and monitoring during GI endoscopy please refer to the earlier chapter entitled ‘Sedation and Monitoring’. Table 34. Oxygen administered during PEG procedure Oxygen administered Total (%) Yes 606 (94) No 41 (6) Sub-total 647 Not answered 72 Total 719 Oxygen should be given to all patients undergoing a PEG procedure, yet at least 6% (41/647) of patients did not receive it (Table 34). Table 35. Sedation and analgesia during PEG procedure (answers may be multiple) Sedation and analgesia Total n = 679 None 16 Local anaesthesia 245 Intravenous benzodiazepine sedation 542 Intravenous opiod sedation 47 Other intravenous sedation 15 Total 865 Not answered 40 Table 35 includes 27 patients who had a GA or were in ICU receiving IPPV. Where local analgesia was used, 6% (42/679) had the procedure done under topical local anaesthesia to the oropharynx alone and 30% (203/679) had topical anaesthesia to the oropharynx combined with some form of sedation. NCEPOD advisors repeatedly expressed concerns that the use of sedation and local anaesthetic spray to the oropharynx may be implicated in pulmonary aspiration and postoperative respiratory complications. This concern was expressed particularly with regard to patients with dysphagia and a history of aspiration, in whom the supine position of the patient during the PEG procedure might facilitate further contamination to the respiratory tree. The use of flumazenil and naloxone reversal during PEG procedure is presented in Table 36. The high number of questionnaires not answered may reflect missing data but it is more likely that the patient did not need their sedation reversed. The questionnaire should have made this question clearer. Table 36. Flumazenil or naloxone administered during PEG procedure  Total (%) Flumazenil 65 (96) Naloxone and Flumazenil 2 (3) Naloxone 1 (1) Sub-total 68 Not answered 651 Total 719 Reversal of sedation was required in 9% (68/719) of patients. This might reflect that some endoscopists have little awareness of the sensitivity that those with neurological disease have to sedative drugs. Best practice guidelines on sedation for PEG procedure may be helpful. (back to top)  ");sQ1[63]=new Array("pegs.patientprofile.htm","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy - Patient Profile","","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE PREOPERATIVE ASSESSMENT AND PREPARATION OPERATIVE EVENTS POSTOPERATIVE OUTCOME RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  PATIENT PROFILE Key point One in five PEG procedures were futile or not indicated. In this sample 40% (719/1,818) of patients underwent a PEG procedure for enteral feeding, of which 55% (392/719) of patients were male. The age profile of the sample is presented in Figure 9 and shows that 588/719 (82%) patients were aged 70 years or older. Figure 9. Age profile of patient undergoing PEG procedure There is little evidence that PEG insertion in older persons can increase survival per se. A meta-analysis by Mitchell and co-workers3 who used a MEDLINE search of studies between 1980-1998 inclusive found that 19% died within one month, a further 11% within two months and a further 14% died within six months. Only 38% survived for one year. An earlier study of American hospitalised Medicare beneficiaries aged 65 years or older discharged in 1991 found an overall 30-day mortality rate of 24%4. None of the five cohort studies reviewed, that compared survival in nursing homes with or without feeding tubes, demonstrated a benefit. Another of the studies reviewed showed increased survival in those patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. With such depressing mortality figures the indications for insertion of PEG in older patients should be strongly influenced by a consideration of its benefit to quality of life as much as for survival. The patient needs to understand this and take part in the decision. It may be appropriate for a study to be undertaken which would further examine who would benefit from this procedure. Figure 10 shows that 84% (607/719) of patients were ASA 3 or poorer. Figure 10. Physical status of patients undergoing PEG procedure Table 28 lists the medical disorders of the patients. Table 28. Co-existing medical disorders in patients undergoing PEG procedures (answers may be multiple) System involved Total n = 710 Neurological 695 Respiratory 402 Cardiac 338 Renal 57 Total 1,492 Not answered 9 Table 29. Urgency of PEG procedure Urgency Total (%) Elective/scheduled 641 (95) Urgent 34 (5) Emergency 2 (<1) Sub-total 677 Not answered 42 Total 719 Predictably, most PEGs were inserted as an elective or scheduled procedure (Table 29). The urgent procedures were likely to be patients with a mechanical obstruction to swallowing where the passing of a nasogastric tube was impractical. However, the advisors were of the opinion that a PEG insertion should never be an urgent procedure and were concerned about the role of PEG feeding in those receiving palliative care. One of the emergencies was for mechanical obstruction. The other case which may have been poorly categorised, received a PEG three weeks after admission. Table 30. Days between PEG procedure and death Days between procedure and death Total (%) 0 14 (2) 1-3 126 (18) 4-7 156 (23) 8-14 183 (26) 15-21 112 (16) 22-30 101 (15) Sub-total 692 Procedure date unknown 27 Total 719 There was an alarming association between PEG insertion and early death (Table 30). Out of 692 cases 2% (14/692) of patients died on the day of the procedure, of whom three died in the recovery room, and a further 18% (126/692) died between the first and third post endoscopy day. A total of 43% (296/692) of deaths occurred within one week and a further 26% (183/692) in the second week. On review of these cases NCEPOD advisors often expressed concern about the timing of the procedure indicating that these procedures were futile or precipitated death. In one case where a patient was over 90 years-of-age an advisor commented, "The PEG placement was technically OK - but the timing was wrong. The patient was very ill, dehydrated and had pneumonia. They should not have had a PEG at this time and died six days later. There is no information about the last few days of life.” Early death after PEG procedure is an area where things are going badly wrong. Endoscopists who perform the procedures may not be aware of the patient’s outcome following transfer back to the referring clinician. Clinicians were asked to state the expectation of death (Figure 11). In 22 cases no answer was given and in 6% (42/697) death was expected. Figure 11. Expectation of death following PEG procedure Many of these had malignant disease such as oesophageal cancer, and the PEG was to palliate hunger. It was surprising that in 63% (440/697) of cases the patient was classified as having a definite risk of death. On review of the cases NCEPOD advisors were asked to give an opinion on whether the procedure was appropriate for that patient. One in five (19%, 135/719) of PEG procedures were thought to be either futile or no procedure was indicated. For these cases, the quality of information provided to the patient and their relatives must be questioned. (back to top)  ");sQ1[64]=new Array("pegs.postoperative.htm","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy - Postoperative Outcome","","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE PREOPERATIVE ASSESSMENT AND PREPARATION OPERATIVE EVENTS POSTOPERATIVE OUTCOME RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  POSTOPERATIVE OUTCOME The systems implicated in the cause of death are presented in Table 37. Table 37. Systems implicated in death following PEG procedures (answers may be multiple) Systems implicated in death Total n = 670 Cardiovascular 173 Respiratory 508 Renal 37 Hepatic 9 CNS 35 Total 762 Not answered 49 76% (508/670) of patients suffered from respiratory complications after their PEG procedure. It is known that over the long-term, aspiration pneumonia is the most common cause of death for gastrostomy tube-fed patients5. However, that patients should die of respiratory complications so early after PEG placement is of concern. Possible reasons for this are patient selection and the timing of the procedure. During the procedure, the supine position of the patient with swallowing problems, perhaps particularly when combined with topical LA and sedation is used, may contribute to aspiration complications. Postoperatively, the position of the patient during and after feeds and the timing and volumes of feed may be contributory factors. (back to top)  ");sQ1[65]=new Array("pegs.preoperative.htm","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy - Preoperative Assessment and Preparation","","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE PREOPERATIVE ASSESSMENT AND PREPARATION Pre-exhisting medical condition Aspiration pneumonia Dementia Acute neurological disorder Antibiotic prophylaxis OPERATIVE EVENTS POSTOPERATIVE OUTCOME RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  PREOPERATIVE ASSESSMENT AND PREPARATION Key points 40% of PEG patients had a co-existing diagnosis of acute chest infection. 59% of PEG patients had suffered a stroke or neurological trauma before the insertion of their PEG. 42% of patients had no antibiotic prophylaxis for their PEG insertion. Pre-existing medical condition (back to top) The co-existing conditions leading to the decision for the PEG procedure are presented in Table 31. Table 31. Indications for PEG procedure (answers may be multiple) Indication Total n = 706 Nutritional failure due to non-malignant disease 284 Motor neurone/other degenerative disease 52 Neurological disease – acute (stroke, trauma) 418 Neurological disease – chronic (degenerative neurological disease) 94 Dementia 128 Malignancy – oropharyngeal cancer 27 Malignancy – oesophageal cancer 11 Malignancy – gastric cancer 2 Malignancy – other 40 Total 1,056 Not answered 13 NCEPOD did not ask specifically for the primary indication of the procedure. However, the commonest indication for PEG insertion was for feeding problems following an acute neurological disease, mostly a stroke. For a general discussion on patient selection for GI endoscopy see the earlier chapter discussing patient assessment. Aspiration pneumonia (back to top) At the time of PEG insertion, 40% (281/710) of cases, where information was provided, had a co-existing diagnosis of acute chest infection. Many of these had swallowing difficulties, due to comorbidities such as motor neurone disease or following a stroke, and had aspiration pneumonia. There appeared to be a misconception that PEG feeding would prevent aspiration pneumonia as clinicians had indicated on some questionnaires that this was the reason for PEG insertion when in fact aspiration pneumonia is the most common cause of death in these patients. PEG feeding does not prevent aspiration and it offers no protection from aspiration of colonised oral secretions as scintigraphic studies have shown evidence of aspiration of gastric contents in gastrostomy fed patients5 6. Dementia (back to top) 18% (128/706) of patients had a diagnosis of dementia and in many of these the PEG was inserted because patients were feeding poorly. All relevant studies have shown that PEG feeding for those with dementia does not improve outcome6 7 8 9 and an increasing number of clinicians are of the opinion that dementia is not an indication for PEG feeding6 8 10. NCEPOD advisors in their discussions were clear that for those patients with severe dementia and significant comorbidity such as those confined to bed with pressure sores and limb contractures, PEG feeding was unlikely to improve their quality of life and may not be a preferred option. They found the ethical decision on withholding feeding more difficult for those patients with dementia and poor nutrition but no other comorbidity. The ethical considerations of artificial nutrition and hydration are discussed in the General Medical Council's (GMC) booklet on withholding and withdrawing life-prolonging treatments. In summary, the GMC advises using up-to-date professional advice on the particular clinical consideration and assessing quality of life issues. In addition, it advises wide consultation by seeking other expert opinion and involving the health care team and those close to the patient in decision making11. Little evidence was found in the casenotes regarding this type of discussion which either reflects poor record keeping or lack of consultation. Acute neurological disorder (back to top) 418/706 (59%) of patients were admitted following a stroke or acute neurological trauma. Patients with a stroke or neurological trauma are most commonly admitted to hospital as an emergency and have PEG feeding established later if required. There is evidence that PEG feeding, compared with nasogastric feeding after a stroke may result in improved nutritional status12 13. The time between admission and PEG procedure for those with an acute neurological disorder was examined. 92% (384/418) of patients had their procedure within 60 days of admission and the duration between admission and procedure is shown in Figure 12. Figure 12. Days between admission and PEG procedure for those with acute neurological disorder There are few data on the best timing for PEG feeding after a stroke. Historically, it was often deferred for four to six weeks to assess any improvement in dysphagia. However, there is some evidence from a 30 patient study that it should be considered earlier, at 14 days13 and further trials are ongoing. An advisor commented about a patient in their late sixties, "Died two days after PEG insertion from ‘inhalation pneumonia’, but was admitted nine days before with rigors and a chest infection. It would appear that the PEG was placed too soon after an acute admission with pneumonia". Figure 13. Days between PEG procedure and death for those with acute neurological disorder Despite PEG feeding for acute neurological disorder being an elective procedure, nine patients died on the day of operation (Figure 13) and 38% (159/418) died on or before postoperative day 7. Why were there so many early deaths? Patient selection must be implicated, but in their discussions advisors were concerned that PEGs may sometimes be inserted to facilitate discharge to community nursing care and, medical considerations that should affect timing may be overlooked, in order to achieve this. Antibiotic prophylaxis (back to top) The British Society of Gastroenterologists (BSG) in their guidelines on antibiotic prophylaxis for GI endoscopy recommends antibiotic prophylaxis for all PEG insertions14. There is evidence that antibiotics can reduce peristomal wound infection15 16, particularly in those with underlying malignancy17. Table 32. Antibiotic prophylaxis administered for PEG procedure  Total (%) Yes 305 (58) No 220 (42) Sub-total 525 Not answered 194 Total 719 The data shown in Table 32 do not take account of patients who may have been receiving antibiotics for other reasons. Nevertheless, it would appear that antibiotic prophylaxis is not used universally and this requires urgent review. (back to top)  ");sQ1[66]=new Array("pegs.recs.htm","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy - Recommendations","","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE PREOPERATIVE ASSESSMENT AND PREPARATION OPERATIVE EVENTS POSTOPERATIVE OUTCOME RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  Recommendations The decision to use a PEG feeding tube requires an in-depth assessment of the potential benefits to the individual. All patients in whom PEG feeding is proposed should be reviewed by a multidisciplinary team. There is a need for more comprehensive national guidelines for the use of PEG feeding, including issues of patient selection.   ");sQ1[67]=new Array("pegs.references.htm","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy - References","","9. Percutaneous Endoscopic Gastronomy INTRODUCTION PATIENT PROFILE PREOPERATIVE ASSESSMENT AND PREPARATION OPERATIVE EVENTS POSTOPERATIVE OUTCOME RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Gauderer MW, Ponsky JL, Izant RJ Jr. Gastrostomy without laparotomy: a percutaneous endoscopic technique. J Paediatric Surgery 1980; 15(6):872-5 2 Stroud M, Duncan H, Nightingale J. Guidelines for enteral feeding in adult hospital patients. Gut 2003; 52(suppl VII):vii1-vii12 3 Mitchell SL, Tetroe JM. Survival after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy placement in older persons. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2000; 55(12):M735-9 4 Grant MD, Rudberg MA, Brody JA. Gastrostomy placement and mortality among hospitalized Medicare beneficiaries. JAMA 1998; 279(24):1973-76 5 Marik PE. Primary care: aspiration pneumonitis and aspiration pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2001; 344(9):665-71 6 Finucane TE, Christmas C, Travis K. Tube feeding in patients with advanced dementia: A review of the evidence. JAMA 1999; 282(14):1365-70 7 Murphy LM, Lipman TO. Percutaneous endoscopy does not prolong survival in patients with dementia. Arch Intern Med 2003;163(11):1351-53 8 Saunders DS, Carter MJ, D’Silva J, James G, Bolton RP, Bardhan KD. Survival analysis in percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy feeding: a worse outcome in patients with dementia. Am Journal Gastroenterol 2000; 95(6):1472-5 9 Nair S, Hertan H, Pitchumoni CS. Hypoalbuminaemia is a poor predictor of survival after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in elderly patients with dementia. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95(1):133-6 10 Billings JA. Recent advances: palliative care. BMJ 2000; 321(7260):555-8 11 Withholding and withdrawing life-prolonging treatments: good practice in decision-making. General Medical Council, 2002. www.gmc-uk.org/standards/whwd.htm 12 Bath PMW, Bath FJ, Smithard DG. Interventions for dysphagia in acute stroke. In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2004. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 13 Norton B, Homer-Ward M, Donnelly MT, Long RG, Holmes GK. A randomised prospective comparison of percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and nasogastric feeding after acute dysphagic stroke. BMJ 1996, 312(7022):13-16 14 Antibiotic prophylaxis in gastrointestinal endoscopy. BSG guidelines in gastroenterology, British Society of Gastroenterology, 2001. www.bsg.org.uk/pdf_word_docs/prophylaxis2001.pdf 15 Ahmad I, Mouncher A, Abdoolah A, Stenson R, Wright J, Daniels A, Tillett J, Hawthorne AB, Thomas G. Antibiotic prophylaxis for percutaneous gastrostomy - a prospective, randomised, double-blind trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2003; 18(2):209-15 16 Preclik G, Grune S, Leser HG, Lebherz J, Heldwein W, Machka K, Holstege A, Kern WV. Prospective, randomised, double-blind trial of prophylaxis with single dose co-amoxiclav before percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy. BMJ 1999; 319(7214):881-4 17 Saunders S, Carter MJ. Antibiotic prophylaxis after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy insertion: All encompassing study is needed (letter). BMJ 2000; 320(7238):870 (back to top)  ");sQ1[68]=new Array("recom.main.htm","Recommendations","","Recommend-ations RECOMMENDATIONS Organisational issues Patient assessment Patient consent Training and education Sedation and monitoring Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography Oesophago-gastroduodenoscopy Upper gastrointestinal dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion Pathology  RECOMMENDATIONS Recommendations are listed by chapter, and NCEPOD’s view of who should take the recommendation forward is shown in brackets. Organisational issues Hospitals should ensure that the appropriate monitoring equipment and resuscitation equipment is available in each of their endoscopy rooms and recovery areas. (Local hospitals; Primary Care Trusts) In order to produce optimal care for what is a large group of severely ill patients, hospitals should consider establishing formal on-call arrangements. (Local hospitals) (back to top) Patient assessment Patients must be assessed by the referring clinician and the endoscopist to justify that the procedure is in the patient’s interest. (Professional specialist associations) (back to top) Patient consent The risks and benefits of therapeutic endoscopy should be explained to the patient, and this should be documented on the consent forms as laid down in the Department of Health guidelines. (Local hospitals) The ability of those with dementia or acute confusion to provide consent should be tested and clearly documented. (Local hospitals) (back to top) Training and education There should be national guidelines for assuring continuing competency in endoscopy. (Professional specialist associations) All endoscopy units should perform regular audit and all deaths during, or within 30 days of, therapeutic endoscopy should be reviewed. (Local hospitals; Professional specialist associations) All those responsible for the administration of sedation should have received formal training and assessment. (Local hospitals) (back to top) Sedation and monitoring Sedation and monitoring practices within endoscopy units should be audited and reviewed. (Local hospitals; Professional specialist associations) There should be national guidelines on the frequency and method of the recording of vital signs during the endoscopy. (NPSA; Professional specialist associations) Clear protocols for the administration of sedation should be available and implemented. (Local hospitals) (back to top) Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy The decision to use a PEG feeding tube requires an in-depth assessment of the potential benefits to the individual. All patients in whom PEG feeding is proposed should be reviewed by a multidisciplinary team. (NICE) There is a need for more comprehensive national guidelines for the use of PEG feeding, including issues of patient selection. (NICE) (back to top) Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography Patients should be reviewed by the consultant endoscopist before therapeutic ERCP to ensure that the procedure is appropriate and that the patient’s condition has been optimised. (Local hospitals) (back to top) Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy Only experienced endoscopists should treat patients with upper GI haemorrhage. Experience will vary by grade but competence should be assessed by the supervising consultant. (Local hospitals) Optimising the patient’s pre-endoscopy condition will reduce both morbidity and mortality. Early involvement of an anaesthetist/intensivist if necessary, will assist this. (Local hospitals) (back to top) Upper gastrointestinal dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion A national audit across all specialties of specific techniques and equipment that is used for upper GI dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion is indicated. (NPSA) (back to top) Pathology The operative procedure should be included in the cause of death statement. (Undergraduate and post-graduate deans; ONS) Post-procedure deaths (i.e. those occurring during or within 24 hours of anaesthesia or sedation or those where it is known that the procedure is implicated in the death) should be reported to the coroner. (Local hospitals) Pathologists should think more carefully about all the clinical circumstances of a death, to produce an autopsy report more useful for clinical governance and audit. (Professional specialist associations particularly the Royal College of Pathologists) NCEPOD supports the reforms of the ‘coronial system’ and death certification, which will result in better scrutiny of deaths. (Home Office) (back to top)  ");sQ1[69]=new Array("search_template.htm","Search",""," ");sQ1[70]=new Array("sedation.intro.htm","8. Sedation and Monitoring - Introduction","","8. Sedation and Monitoring INTRODUCTION SEDATION TECHNIQUES PATIENT MONITORING MONITORING PERSONNEL RECORD KEEPING POST-ENDOSCOPY RECOVERY RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  8. SEDATION AND MONITORING INTRODUCTION Many diagnostic endoscopic procedures can be carried out without sedation using reassurance and oropharyngeal local anaesthesia. However, therapeutic endoscopy, particularly of the upper gastrointestinal tract, may be unpleasant and painful, and often requires adjunctive pain relief and sedation. In this chapter we examine the conduct of monitoring and sedation for therapeutic endoscopy. Conscious sedation is "A technique in which the use of a drug or drugs produces a state of depression of the central nervous system enabling treatment to be carried out, but during which verbal contact with the patient is maintained throughout the period of sedation. The drugs and techniques used to provide conscious sedation should carry a margin of safety wide enough to render loss of consciousness unlikely"1 . There are two recent key guidelines for sedation and monitoring. The British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) guidelines ‘Safety and sedation during endoscopic procedures’2 and the Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, ‘Implementing and ensuring safe sedation practice for healthcare procedures in adults’1. All endoscopists and their assistants using sedation and monitoring patients should be familiar with these and a copy of each should be available to those in the endoscopy suite. (back to top)  ");sQ1[71]=new Array("sedation.monitoringpersonnel.htm","8. Sedation and Monitoring - Monitoring Personnel","","8. Sedation and Monitoring INTRODUCTION SEDATION TECHNIQUES PATIENT MONITORING MONITORING PERSONNEL RECORD KEEPING POST-ENDOSCOPY RECOVERY RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  MONITORING PERSONNEL Key point In 3% of cases the endoscopist alone was responsible for monitoring the patient during the endoscopy. 94% (1,707/1,818) told us who monitored the patient. Someone other than a doctor was responsible for monitoring most patients, and this was a nurse in 84% (1,439/1,707) of cases and an operating department assistant in ten cases. It is expected that a non-medical practitioner can effectively monitor the patient during endoscopy provided they have been sufficiently trained. This means at least they will have received formal training and undergo regular updates in resuscitation and revalidation of knowledge1. In 3% (58/1,707) of cases the endoscopist was the only person responsible for monitoring the patient. It is unacceptable that the person performing an endoscopy should also be responsible for monitoring the condition of the patient. Guidelines of the BSG state that the endoscopist is responsible for the wellbeing and clinical observation of the patient ‘in conjunction with another individual’ (our own emphasis)2 14, and the Academy of the Royal Colleges1 state that one member of the care team must have a defined responsibility for patient observation and record keeping. This individual should be dedicated to monitoring the patient and have no other responsibilities during the endoscopy. The name, specialty and grade of the person responsible for monitoring the patient should be clearly recorded on the endoscopy report. (back to top)  ");sQ1[72]=new Array("sedation.patientmonitoring.htm","8. Sedation and Monitoring - Patient Monitoring","","8. Sedation and Monitoring INTRODUCTION SEDATION TECHNIQUES PATIENT MONITORING Pulse oximetry Electrocardiography (ECG) Automatic blood pressure monitoring Supplemental oxygen MONITORING PERSONNEL RECORD KEEPING POST-ENDOSCOPY RECOVERY RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  PATIENT MONITORING Key points In 27% of cases patient monitoring was deficient. In 20% of cases ECG monitoring was indicated where it was not used. In 14% of cases automatic blood pressure monitoring was indicated where it was not used. Table 22. Critical events during the procedure (answers may be multiple) Critical event Total n = 1,688 Cardiac arrest 8 Respiratory arrest 5 Hypoxaemia (SpO2< 90%) 68 Pulmonary aspiration 1 Hypotension (less than or equal to 100mm Hg systolic) 68 Tachycardia (greater than or equal to 100 beats/minute) 86 Local haemorrhage 41 Viscus perforation 5 Other 24 Total 306 None 1,493 Not answered 130 93% (1,688/1,818) responded to the question relating to critical events. From the review of cases it is likely that these were under-reported (Table 22) or undiagnosed, possibly reflecting a deficiency in monitoring. Nevertheless, from the questionnaires, 4% (68/1,688) of patients suffered from hypoxaemia during the procedure. The type of monitoring used should be determined by the procedure and physical status of the patient. Respondents were asked to state the monitoring used during the procedure. This question was answered in 94% (1,701/1,818) of cases. There should always be a record of monitoring used during endoscopy, particularly when sedation is used. A summary of monitoring is presented in Table 23. Table 23. Monitoring during the procedure (answers may be multiple) Monitors used Total n = 1,701 Pulse oximetry 1,668 ECG 384 Automatic BP 729 Total 2,781 Not answered 117 NCEPOD advisors were asked to provide an opinion on deficiencies in monitoring in cases where there was sufficient information for them to assess. Monitoring of the patient during the procedure was considered deficient in 27% (377/1,398) of cases. Pulse oximetry (back to top) The question on patient monitors used during the procedure was completed in 1,701 cases. Monitoring by pulse oximetry was performed during endoscopy in 98% (1,668/1,701) of patients. On review, the advisors thought monitoring pulse oximetry was specifically indicated in a further 27 cases. The BSG guidelines on the provision of endoscopy services recommend that pulse oximetry should be available in all rooms6. Pulse oximetry is a simple, non-invasive monitor and evidence from this report suggests that it is widely available for endoscopy patients; the chapter entitled organisational issues reports that 99% of hospitals had access to pulse oximetry in every room in their endoscopy unit. It was used with relatively few exceptions, but it should be used for all therapeutic and diagnostic endoscopies. Electrocardiography (ECG) (back to top) In this sample, 23% (384/1,701) of patients received continuous ECG monitoring during the procedure. This was considered low in a sample where 38% (639/1,701) of patients had known cardiac disease and 86% (1,458/1,701) were ASA 3 or poorer. On review, the advisors thought ECG monitoring was indicated in a further 345 cases where it was not used. Case Study  A patient was admitted with an acute inferior myocardial infarction. Four weeks later the patient suffered a large haematemesis, became hypotensive and their haemoglobin decreased by 2.5gm/dl. A CVP line was inserted to monitor resuscitation. The next day an endoscopy was performed and adrenaline was injected into two large gastric ulcers. Pulse oximetry and automatic blood pressure were monitored, but ECG was not. Why was ECG monitoring not used? There is evidence that despite endoscopy being, in general, a minor low risk procedure it can affect cardiac function. In a study of patients with stable coronary heart disease undergoing gastroscopy 42% developed Holter monitoring, evidence of silent myocardial ischaemia7 and in another study of patients with heart disease aged 80 years or older, upper GI endoscopy induced an increased number of ventricular ectopics8. ECG monitoring enables the detection of life threatening arrhythmia and ST segment changes and the person responsible for monitoring the patient must be sufficiently trained to detect such abnormalities. The factors that should be considered when deciding on ECG monitoring are cardiovascular disease, ASA status and the potential for haemodynamic instability. The guidelines of the Academy of Medical Royal Colleges1 state that monitoring of blood pressure and ECG may not be necessary in young healthy patients, but is essential in older patients, especially if there are any cardiovascular problems. However, an ECG monitor should be available in all endoscopy rooms and any patient with a history of cardiac problems or haemorrhage must receive ECG monitoring. Automatic blood pressure monitoring (back to top) Automatic blood pressure monitoring was used in 43% (729/1,701) of patients during the procedure. On review, the advisors thought automatic blood pressure monitoring was indicated in a further 231 cases where it was not used. Although it is not an invasive monitor, many patients find automatic blood pressure monitoring unpleasant, particularly when it is first applied when the inflation pressure is high. Case Study  A patient was admitted with pain from bilateral loosened hip prostheses. Their medical history included atrial fibrillation, congestive cardiac failure and a NSAID induced GI bleed. Nevertheless diclofenac was prescribed. Six days later the patient became acutely short of breath due to a chest infection and left ventricular failure. The patient then suffered an upper GI bleed, following which they developed hypotension, tachycardia and acute renal failure. When the patient had their gastroscopy they were described as "very poorly" and were treated with inotropes. No ECG or blood pressure monitoring was used in the endoscopy suite, either before, during, or after the procedure. All endoscopy rooms should have an automatic blood pressure machine. Automatic blood pressure monitoring should be used in any patient whose condition including comorbidities makes hypotension likely. This includes haemodynamic instability and a recent severe GI bleed. Supplemental oxygen (back to top) Oxygen should be given during all endoscopies2 as it dramatically reduces the incidence of hypoxaemia9. Table 24 gives details of oxygen administered in the sample. Table 24. Oxygen administered during the procedure  Total (%) Administered 1,584 (95) Not administered 88 (5) Sub-total 1,672 Not answered 146 (8) Total 1,818 Hypoxaemia can occur during upper GI endoscopy with or without sedation, particularly in those with pre-existing respiratory disease, hepatic cirrhosis, obesity, advanced age or undergoing an emergency procedure9 10 11 12. It can also occur during colonoscopy with sedation13. Moreover hypoxaemia is common. For example, in a study of non-sedated patients undergoing upper GI endoscopy, 24% had a SpO2 of 90% to 94% and a further 6.5% had a SpO2< 90%10. When sedation is used, the incidence of hypoxaemia is higher. In a study of patients undergoing sedated upper GI endoscopy, SpO2<94% was detected in 47%9 and in a study of patients undergoing sedated colonoscopy, hypoxaemia was detected in 45% (8/18)13. However, even with supplemental oxygen, patients can become hypoxic and therefore pulse oximetry should still be used. (back to top)  ");sQ1[73]=new Array("sedation.postendoscopy.htm","8. Sedation and Monitoring - Post-Endoscopy Recovery","","8. Sedation and Monitoring INTRODUCTION SEDATION TECHNIQUES PATIENT MONITORING MONITORING PERSONNEL RECORD KEEPING POST-ENDOSCOPY RECOVERY RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  POST-ENDOSCOPY RECOVERY Key point 8% of patients who had their endoscopy in a dedicated endoscopy room went immediately to a ward without apparent recovery facilities. Where answered, 76% (1,349/1,786) of patients had their endoscopy in a dedicated endoscopy room. Immediate post-procedural locations are shown in Table 26. Table 26. Post-procedure location for patients who underwent endoscopy in a dedicated endoscopy unit Location Total (%) Dedicated recovery area within the endoscopy unit 1,160 (88) General or other ward 105 (8) ICU/HDU 33 (3) Dedicated recovery area within an operating theatre’s department 18 (1) Died in the endoscopy suite 5 (<1) Transferred to surgery 1 (<1) Sub-total 1,322 Not answered 27 (2) Total 1,349 The practice of returning a patient directly to a general ward after endoscopy may be unsafe. Case Study  A patient with alcoholic liver disease (Childs-Pugh score B), non-insulin dependent diabetes and poor LV function was admitted on a Friday following a haematemesis. Two days later (Sunday morning) they underwent a gastroscopy and injection of oesophageal varices under sedation in a dedicated endoscopy room. Following the procedure the patient was returned directly to the general ward. That evening the patient went into respiratory failure. Chest x-ray was consistent with left and right lower lobe consolidation, and the patient died at 01.30 the following morning. The organisational questionnaire completed for this hospital indicated that there was a dedicated recovery unit and the advisors’ view was that had this been used it may have assisted the patient's progress. It is not acceptable that 8% (105/1,349) of patients who had their endoscopy in a dedicated endoscopy unit went from there directly to a ward, especially those who had received sedation. It represents a failure of organisation for the patient's post-procedure care that should be addressed by the endoscopist and their hospital. Following endoscopy, patients should be nursed in an area that has similar equipment and staff to that recommended for a recovery facility. This applies regardless of the timing of the procedure. A ward providing level 1 care is an area that is unlikely to have dedicated recovery staff or appropriate facilities. The BSG 6 stress the importance of a fully-equipped recovery area in proximity to the endoscopy room, which should include pulse oximetry, piped oxygen and suction, electronic blood pressure cuffs, facilities for ECG monitoring and tipping trolleys, as well as full resuscitation equipment. (For the survey of endoscopy suite facilities see the earlier chapter entitled ‘Organisational issues’). (back to top)  ");sQ1[74]=new Array("sedation.recordkeeping.htm","8. Sedation and Monitoring - Record Keeping","","8. Sedation and Monitoring INTRODUCTION SEDATION TECHNIQUES PATIENT MONITORING MONITORING PERSONNEL RECORD KEEPING POST-ENDOSCOPY RECOVERY RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  RECORD KEEPING Key point In 49% of cases no contemporaneous monitoring record was available in the notes. Table 25. Monitoring chart for the procedure in the patient’s notes Monitoring chart Total (%) Yes 807 (51) No 761 (49) Sub-total 1,568 Not answered 250 (14) Total 1,818 A monitoring chart was not present in the patient’s notes in 49% of cases (Table 25). This was not acceptable particularly considering the age and physical status of this sample. For 14% of cases the question was not answered, but surely, if a chart is used it should be filed in the casenotes. Respondents were asked to forward the monitoring chart for the procedure to NCEPOD. However, it was submitted for only 62% (501/807) of cases where one was used. Of the monitoring charts that were submitted, many were deficient. Some contained a record of oxygen saturation, heart rate and blood pressure before and after the procedure, but few contained contemporaneous recordings during the procedure. The UK Academy of Medical Royal Colleges1 recommends making a written record, but there are no published recommendations on the frequency of recording vital signs during sedation. For many therapeutic procedures, particularly if the procedure is long and/or complicated and some of the procedures reported in this study took several hours, or the patient is sick, a contemporaneous record of vital signs on a suitable monitoring chart should be kept. The question of frequency should be addressed. (back to top)  ");sQ1[75]=new Array("sedation.recs.htm","8. Sedation and Monitoring - Recommendations","","8. Sedation and Monitoring INTRODUCTION SEDATION TECHNIQUES PATIENT MONITORING MONITORING PERSONNEL RECORD KEEPING POST-ENDOSCOPY RECOVERY RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  Recommendations Sedation and monitoring practices within endoscopy units should be audited and reviewed. There should be national guidelines on the frequency and method of the recording of vital signs during the endoscopy. Clear protocols for the administration of sedation should be available and implemented.  ");sQ1[76]=new Array("sedation.references.htm","8. Sedation and Monitoring - References","","8. Sedation and Monitoring INTRODUCTION SEDATION TECHNIQUES PATIENT MONITORING MONITORING PERSONNEL RECORD KEEPING POST-ENDOSCOPY RECOVERY RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Implementing and ensuring safe sedation practice for healthcare procedures in adults. UK Academy of Medical Royal Colleges. London, 2001. www.rcoa.ac.uk/docs/safesedationpractice.pdf 2 Safety and sedation during endoscopic procedures. British Society of Gastroenterology, 2003. www.bsg.org.uk/clinical_prac/guidelines/sedation.htm 3 Bowles CJ, Leicester R, Romaya C, Swarbrick E, Williams CB, Epstein O. A prospective study of colonoscopy practice in the UK today: are we adequately prepared for national colorectal cancer screening tomorrow? Gut 2004, 53(2):277-283 4 Quine MA, Bell GD, McCloy RF, Charlton JE, Develin HB, Hopkins A. Prospective audit of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in two regions of England; safety, staffing and sedation methods. Gut 1995; 36(3):462-467 5 Whitwam JG. Flumazenil and midazolam in anaesthesia. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand Suppl 1995; 108:15-22 6 Provision of endoscopy related services in District General Hospitals. BSG Working Party Report, 2001. www.bsg.org.uk/pdf_word_docs/endo_related_services.pdf 7 Schenck J, Muller CH, Lubbers H, Mahlke R, Lehnick D, Lankisch PG. Does gastroscopy induce myocardial ischemia in patients with coronary heart disease? Endoscopy 2000; 32(5):373-6 8 Seinela L, Reinikainen P, Ahvenainen J. Effect of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy on cardiopulmonary changes in very old patients. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2003; 37(1):25-32 9 Wang CY, Ling LC, Cardosa MS, Wong AK, Wong NW. Hypoxia during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy with and without sedation and the effect of pre-oxygenation on oxygen saturation. Anaesthesia 2000; 55(7): 654-8 10 Alcain G, Guillen P, Escolar A, Moreno M, Martin L. Predictive factors of oxygen desaturation during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in nonsedated patients. Gastrointest Endosc 1998; 48(2):143-7 11 Oei-Lim VL, Kalkman CJ, Bartelsman JF, Res JC, van Wezel HB. Cardiovascular responses, arterial oxygen saturation and plasma catecholamine concentration during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy using conscious sedation with midazolam or propofol. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1998; 15(5):535-43 12 Yen D, Hu SC, Chen LS, Liu K, Kao WF, Tsai J, Chern CH, Lee CH. Arterial oxygen desaturation during emergent nonsedated upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in the emergency department. Am J Emerg Med 1997; 15(7):644-7 13 Holm C, Christensen M, Rasmussen V, Schulze S, Rosenberg J. Hypoxaemia and myocardial ischaemia during colonoscopy. Scand J Gastroenterol 1998; 33(7):769-72 14 Bell GD, McCloy RF, Charlton JE, Campbell D, Dent NA, Gear MW, Logan RF, Swan CH. Recommendations for standards of sedation and patient monitoring during gastrointestinal endoscopy. Gut 1991. 32(7): 823-7 (back to top)  ");sQ1[77]=new Array("sedation.sedationtechniques.htm","8. Sedation and Monitoring - Sedation Techniques","","8. Sedation and Monitoring INTRODUCTION SEDATION TECHNIQUES Sedation and analgesia PATIENT MONITORING MONITORING PERSONNEL RECORD KEEPING POST-ENDOSCOPY RECOVERY RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  SEDATION TECHNIQUES Key points In 33% of patients who recieved sedation, this was combined with oropharyngeal local anaesthesia. 14% of patients had sedation overdose. 1,579 cases were analysed after exclusion of patients who had a general anaesthetic (GA) or were already on intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV) at the time of their endoscopy. A breakdown of the type of sedation by the category of procedure is presented in Table 19. Table 19. Type of sedation by type of procedure (GA and IPPV excluded)  PEG ERCP Upper GI Lower GI Total (%) None 15 1 24 15 55 (4) Local anaesthesia (LA) 39 1 62 0 102 (7) Intravenous sedation 349 136 317 30 832 (60) LA and intravenous sedation 198 46 168 0 412 (29) Sub-total 601 184 571 45 1,401 Not answered 67 28 81 2 178 (11) Total 668 212 652 47 1,579 4% (55/1,401) of patients received no sedation or analgesia and 7% (102/1,401) received local anaesthesia alone. Of those patients undergoing lower GI therapeutic endoscopy, 33% (15/45) had no sedation or local anaesthesia compared with 4% (24/571) of those undergoing an upper GI procedure. In a study of colonoscopy practice in three NHS regions, sedation was used in 95% of cases3. The lesser use of sedation in the present study may reflect the advanced age or poor physical status of the patients. Sedation and analgesia (back to top) 79% (1,244/1,579) of patients received some form of intravenous sedation. The drug or drug combinations for these 1,244 are presented in Table 20. Table 20. Intravenous sedation used during the endoscopy Sedation and/or analgesia Total (%) Intravenous opiod 31 (2) Intravenous benzodiazepine sedation 927 (75) Other intravenous sedation 6 (<1) Benzodiazepine and opiod 247 (20) Other intravenous sedation in combination with benzodiazepine and/or opiod 33 (3) Total 1,244 The most commonly used benzodiazepine was midazolam, which was used in 82% (1,019/1,244) of cases. The most commonly used opiod was pethidine, which was used in 16% (205/1,244) of cases. The others were propofol (4), ketamine (1) and not specified (37). These may have been cases where sedation was provided by an anaesthetist. Of those given sedation, in 33% (412/1,244) of cases, the patient received both intravenous sedation and topical oropharyngeal local anaesthesia (Table 19). An audit of two regions in England into diagnostic and therapeutic upper gastrointesinal gastroscopy in 1995 showed that there was an association between combined sedation with oropharyngeal LA and the development of pneumonia after gastroscopy4. In that audit there was also regional variation in the use of combined sedation with oropharyngeal LA; it being used in 77% of patients in the North West vs. 41% in East Anglia. In this sample many patients were severely unwell or had swallowing difficulties and so the use of combined sedation with oropharyngeal LA for 33% of patients was thought to be too high. It suggests this is a practice guided by rote, with little consideration of individual circumstance. Case Study  An elderly patient with a history of myocardial infarction and stroke was admitted following a further stroke. Swallowing difficulties and a GI bleed 12 days after admission prompted a gastroscopy and insertion of PEG. Combined sedation with oropharyngeal local anaesthesia was used during the procedure. Two days later the patient was severely unwell with aspiration pneumonia. For a patient of this age and comorbidity with obtunded swallowing reflex the use of combined sedation with oropharyngeal LA was probably contraindicated. Of those who received sedation or LA, 43% (575/1,346) of patients developed respiratory complications after their endoscopy. In many cases, the advisors thought that combined sedation with oropharyngeal LA might have contributed to the development of this problem. They reasoned that in a fit patient with a sensitive gag reflex, the use of combined sedation with oropharyngeal LA greatly facilitates upper GI endoscopy and minimises sedatives, especially if the procedure is uncomfortable or prolonged. However, for those patients who are more than normally sensitive to the effects of sedation, or who have difficulty swallowing, the combined effects of sedation with oropharyngeal LA may increase the risk of aspiration. Further studies are indicated to determine whether combined sedation with oropharyngeal LA is associated with an increased risk of pulmonary aspiration or other morbidity and, if so, which patients are most at risk. Reversal of sedation was used in 14% (176/1,244) of cases. The use of reversal was almost universally to counteract unanticipated central nervous system depression (i.e. an overdose). There is a practice of routine reversal of sedation5, however, in only two cases did the clinician say that he or she recognised the frailty of the patient and planned reversal of sedation. In an audit of all upper GI endoscopic procedures, the incidence of specific sedation reversal was 0.5-4.2%4 . In the present study, the reason so many needed reversal of sedation appeared to be due to poor recognition by the endoscopists of how sensitive those with comorbidity can be to the effects of sedatives and consequently giving patients a ‘standard’ dose of sedation, most commonly IV midazolam 5mg, which was clearly too much for many. Case Study  A patient with severe alcoholic liver disease, Childs-Pugh C, and bacterial peritonitis had undergone previous gastroscopies for bleeding. Bleeding continued and an endoscopist, who had received training in sedation, performed what was the patient's second gastroscopy in two days. Sedation comprised IV midazolam 5mg and further IV midazolam 2mg. Pulse oximetry was recorded as 87-91% during the whole of the procedure and flumazenil was used to reverse the effects of midazolam following it. This dose of sedation, which would have been appropriate in a fit adult, was excessive in this patient. In sick patients, sedation should be given in very small doses with sufficient time to assess the effects between increments. On case review advisors to NCEPOD provided an opinion on the likelihood that sedation was appropriate, considering the physical status of the patient. There was sufficient clinical information for the advisors to consider sedation inappropriate in 14% (218/1,579) of cases. The reasons given are presented in Table 21. Table 21. Reasons why sedation was judged to be inappropriate (answers may be multiple) Reason why sedation was inappropriate Total n = 185 Excessive opiod 24 Excessive benzodiazepine 161 Insufficient sedation 1 Other* 28 Total 214 No reason stated 33 *These included LA & IV sedation (5), patient unfit for sedation procedure (1) and in 22 cases the reasons were not specified. The advisors most often commented on excessive sedation in patients with upper GI bleeds, severe liver disease, obtunded consciousness (stroke or dementia) or acute chest infection. One advisor commented in the case of an elderly female, "My old bug-bear! If she needs flumazenil and her sats are <90% on oxygen you have given too much sedation, even if it isn't very much!!" (back to top)  ");sQ1[78]=new Array("supplement.data.a.htm","Data Supplement - A. Gastrointestinal Therapeutic Endoscopy Study","","Data Supplement INTRODUCTION A. GASTROINTESTINAL THERAPEUTIC ENDOSCOPY STUDY Procedure Upper digestive tract (excluding PEGs) Upper digestive tract endoscopy PEGs Lower digestive tract endoscopy ERCP Movement of the patient through the hospital/endoscopy unit Operating endoscopists Sedation and monitoring Post-endoscopy complications B. UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL DILATION AND TUBAL PROSTHESIS STUDY n = number of cases where information was provided  A. GASTROINTESTINAL THERAPEUTIC ENDOSCOPY STUDY 1. Date of admission Date of admission 1,817 2. Admission method A. Elective day-case 33 B. Other elective 122 If elective (A or B) then date of decision 99 C. Emergency 1,619 Not answered 44 4. Co-existing medical diagnosis (Answers may be multiple) A. None 79 B. Respiratory COPD 274 Acute chest infection 456 Asthma 65 C. Cardiac Ischaemic heart disease/previous MI/angina 472 MI within three months of the endoscopy 44 Valvular heart disease 69 CCF (at present or in the past) 253 D. Neurological CVA/TIAs 548 Dementia 197 Acute confusion state 127 Psychiatric disease 61 Parkinson’s disease 58 E. Hepatic/pancreatic 411 F. Alimentary 217 G. Renal failure Acute 179 Chronic 122 H. Endocrine Non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus 167 Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus 51 Hypothyroidism 53 Musculoskeletal 181 Haematological Bleeding disorder 73 Immunosupression 25 Sepsis 163 Other 534 Not answered 42 5. Liver cirrhosis Yes 1,509 No 224 Not answered 85 If yes, Childs-Pugh Score A 25 B 38 C 152 Not answered 1,603 6. ASA status 1 29 2 222 3 619 4 661 5 178 Not answered 109 7. Anticipated risk of death within 30 days of the proposed endoscopic procedure A. Not expected 134 B. Small but significant risk 316 C. Definite risk 1,056 D. Expected 247 Not answered 65 8. Patient's weight Patient's weight 429 9. Patient's blood pressure at the start of the procedure Patient's blood pressure at the start of the procedure 1,328 10. Patient's heart rate at the start of the procedure Patient's heart rate at the start of the procedure 1,401 11. Pre-procedural investigations Pre-procedural investigations 1,752 A. None 6 B. Haemoglobin 1,615 C. White cell count 1,614 D. Platelets 1,600 E. INR 946 F. Serum Na 1,605 G. Serum K 1,594 H. Blood urea 1,587 I. Serum creatinine 1,587 J. Serum albumin 1,397 K. Blood glucose 781 L. Serum amylase 204 M. Total bilirubin 1,276 N. Blood gas analysis Inspired oxygen 230  pH 216  PaCO 2 228  PaO2 230 O. Chest X-ray 700 P. ECG 694 Q. ECHO cardiography 88 R. Other 303 Procedure (back to top) 12. Date of procedure Date of procedure 1,789 13. Time of start of procedure Time of start of procedure 1,235 14. Time of finish of procedure Time of finish of procedure 1,071 Upper digestive tract (excluding PEGs) (back to top) 16. a Oesophagus – Fibreoptic oesophagoscope Snare resection of lesion 0 Laser destruction of lesion 10 Cauterisation of lesion (Argon beam) 23 Sclerotherapy of varices 99 Other destruction of lesion 13 Removal of foreign body 5 Balloon dilatation 27 Bougie dilatation 60 Insertion of tubal prosthesis 111 Other 73 16. a Oesophagus – Rigid oesophagoscope Snare resection of lesion 0 Laser destruction of lesion 0 Cauterisation of lesion (Argon beam) 0 Sclerotherapy of varices 0 Other destruction of lesion 0 Removal of foreign body 0 Balloon dilatation 0 Bougie dilatation 5 Insertion of tubal prosthesis 1 Other 0 16. b Upper GI tract, stomach to the proximal duodenum, using fibreoptic scope Snare resection of lesion 3 Laser destruction of lesion 4 Cauterisation of lesion 40 Sclerotherapy to lesion 113 Other destruction of lesion 8 Insertion of prosthesis 40 Removal of foreign body 0 Endoscopic dilatation of the pylorus 7 Other 69 16.c Remainder of the upper digestive tract - Duodenum Removal of lesion 1 Dilatation of lumen 0 Insertion of prosthesis 10 Other 15 16.c Remainder of the upper digestive tract – Jejenum Removal of lesion 0 Dilatation of lumen 0 Insertion of prosthesis 8 Other 5 16.c Remainder of the upper digestive tract – Ileum Removal of lesion 0 Dilatation of lumen 0 Insertion of prosthesis 0 Other 0 17. PEGs Creation of new (first) gastrostomy 675 Creation of a second (subsequent) gastrostomy 14 Replacement of gastrostomy feeding tube 13 Removal of gastrostomy feeding tube 3 Attention to a gastrostomy tube (not requiring removal) 1 Other 4 18. Lower digestive tract - Colonoscope Snare resection of lesion 14 Cauterisation of lesion 2 Laser destruction of lesion 0 Cryotherapy 0 Other destruction of lesion 0 Dilatation of lumen 0 Coagulation of blood vessel 0 Removal of foreign body 0 Insertion of tubal prosthesis 6 Other 5 18. Lower digestive tract – Fibre optic sigmoidoscope Snare resection of lesion 5 Cauterisation of lesion 2 Laser destruction of lesion 0 Cryotherapy 0 Other destruction of lesion 0 Dilatation of lumen 1 Coagulation of blood vessel 1 Removal of foreign body 0 Insertion of tubal prosthesis 3 Other 2 18.Lower digestive tract – Rigid sigmoidoscope Snare resection of lesion 0 Cauterisation of lesion 0 Laser destruction of lesion 0 Cryotherapy 0 Other destruction of lesion 0 Dilatation of lumen 1 Coagulation of blood vessel 1 Removal of foreign body 0 Insertion of tubal prosthesis 3 Other 2 19. ERCP Sphincterotomy sphincter of Oddi and insertion of calculus 4 Sphincterotomy sphincter of Oddi and insertion of tubal prosthesis 51 Sphincterotomy of accessory ampulla of Vater 4 Insertion of tubal prosthesis into both hepatic ducts 7 Insertion of tubal prosthesis into bile duct 119 Renewal of tubal prosthesis in bile duct 16 Removal of tubal prosthesis from bile duct 15 Dilatation of bile duct 8 Insertion of prosthesis into pancreatic duct 1 Renewal of prosthesis in pancreatic duct 0 Removal of calculus from pancreatic duct 1 Drainage of lesion of pancreas 0 Dilatation of pancreatic duct 0 Other 7 20. Urgency of the procedure A. Elective 250 B. Scheduled 822 C. Urgent 437 D. Emergency 197 Not answered 112 21. Previous endoscopic procedures within the last 2 years Previous endoscopic procedures within the last 2 years 1,103 Upper digestive tract endoscopy (back to top) 22. Conditions diagnosed before endoscopy A. Pharyngeal pouch 2 B. Malignant oesophageal stricture 155 C. Benign oesophageal stricture 30 D. Achalasia 3 E. Oesophageal diverticulum 0 F. Gastric ulcer 26 G. Gastric cancer 29 H. Duodenal ulcer 59 I. Pyloric stenosis 8 J. Other 102 22. Conditions diagnosed during endoscopy A. Pharyngeal pouch 3 B. Malignant oesophageal stricture 54 C. Benign oesophageal stricture 27 D. Achalasia 1 E. Oesophageal diverticulum 0 F. Gastric ulcer 6 G. Gastric cancer 10 H. Duodenal ulcer 171 I. Pyloric stenosis 8 J. Other 80 PEGs (back to top) 23. Conditions at the time of the endoscopy A. Nutritional failure due to non-malignant disease 300 B. Motor neurone/other degenerative disease 65 C. Neurological disease Acute 421  Chronic 100 D. Dementia  138 E. Malignancy Oropharyngeal cancer 31  Oesophageal cancer 29 Gastric cancer 10 Other 56 Lower digestive tract endoscopy (back to top) 24.a Previous history of pelvic surgery Yes 3 No 57 24.b Patient known to suffer from diverticular disease Yes 7 No 53 24.c Previously “difficult” colonoscopy Yes 2 No 56 24.d Prior contrast examination Yes 13 No 53 24.e Conditions diagnosed before endoscopy A. Diverticular disease 7 B. Malignant stricture 14 C. Benign stricture 2 D. Pedunculated polyp(s) 1 E. Flat polyp(s) 0 F. Non-stricturing carcinoma 0 G. Angiodysplagia 0 H. Ulcerative colitis 0 I. Crohn’s disease 1 J. Other 8 24.e Conditions diagnosed during endoscopy A. Diverticular disease 5 B. Malignant stricture 8 C. Benign stricture 2 D. Pedunculated polyp(s) 14 E. Flat polyp(s) 0 F. Non-stricturing carcinoma 2 G. Angiodysplagia 2 H. Ulcerative colitis 0 I. Crohn’s disease 0 J. Other 4 ERCP (back to top) 25. Conditions diagnosed before endoscopy A. Bile duct stone (possible/definite) 59 B. Bacterial cholangitis 40 C. Benign biliary stricture 4 D. Malignant biliary stricture 85 E. Carcinoma of the pancreas 56 F. Acute pancreatitis 6 G. Chronic pancreatitis 2 H. Sclerosing cholangitis 1 I. Choledochal cyst 0 J. Other 5 25. Conditions diagnosed during endoscopy A. Bile duct stone (possible/definite) 29 B. Bacterial cholangitis 11 C. Benign biliary stricture 4 D. Malignant biliary stricture 67 E. Carcinoma of the pancreas 36 F. Acute pancreatitis 1 G. Chronic pancreatitis 1 H. Sclerosing cholangitis 0 I. Choledochal cyst 1 J. Other 6 26. Written consent obtained for the procedure Yes 979 No 254 Not answered 585 27. Antibiotic prophylaxis for the procedure Yes 561 No 636 Not answered 621 Movement of patient through the hospital/endoscopy unit (Answers may be multiple) (back to top) 28. Pathway for this referral A. Admission following an outpatient consultation 96 B. Direct referral from a general practitioner (open access) 101 C. Admission via A&E 665 D. Tertiary referral from within own hospital 729 E. Transfer from another hospital or general practitioner endoscopy unit 83 F. Self-referral by patient 12 G. Other 100 Not answered 73 29. Tertiary referral speciality A. Care of the elderly 329 B. Other medical 349 C. Surgical 132 D. Other 104 Not answered 904 30. Department of hospital immediately before the procedure A. A&E department 46 B. Emergency admissions unit 73 C. Medical ward 1,095 D. Surgical ward 286 E. Day case ward 17 F. Out-patient department 3 G. High dependency unit 53 H. Intensive care unit 87 I. Other 112 Not answered 46 31. Location of procedure A. Dedicated endoscopy unit/room 1,349 B. Day-case surgery unit 15 C. Operating theatres 161 D. X-ray department 171 E. ICU/HDU 78 F. A&E 3 G. Admission unit or A&E ward 3 H. Other ward 5 I. Other 1 Not answered 32 32. Post procedure location A. A dedicated recovery area within the endoscopy unit 1,247 B. A dedicated recovery area within the operating theatres department 144 C. ICU 115 D. HDU 36 E. General ward 163 F. Died during the procedure 5 G. Other 54 Not answered 54 33. If patient went directly to recovery, post recovery location A. ICU 30 B. HDU 55 C. Directly to the operating theatre for an operation 7 D. General ward 1,237 E. Died in the recovery area 11 F. Home 13 Not answered 38 Operating endoscopists (back to top) 34. Specialty of the most senior operating endoscopists A. Specialised GI physician 1,279 B. Other physician 86 C. Specialised GI surgeon 278 D. Thoracic surgeon 12 E. Other surgeon 44 F. Radiologist 34 G. General practitioner 7 H. Nurse practitioner 8 G. Other 4 Not answered 66 35. Grade of the most senior operating endoscopist career grades A. Consultant 1,312 B. Associate specialist 80 C. Staff grade 70 D. General practitioner 7 E. Nurse practitioner 9 Trainee grades and year of training F. Specialist registrar – post CCST 37 G. Specialist registrar – year 3/4 203 H. Specialist registrar – year 1/2 45 I. Senior house officer 2 J. Other trainee 8 Not answered 45 36. Higher diplomas of most senior operating endoscopist (Answers may be multiple) A. None 13 B. Full Fellowship/Membership of a Royal Medical College 1,093 C. Part Fellowship/Membership of Royal Medical College 23 D. ENB course A87 1 E. Other 7 Not answered 122 37. Upper digestive tract therapeutic endoscopic procedures performed by senior operator in the last 12 months <5 8 6-10 13 11-20 65 21-50 159 51-100 177 >100 665 38. PEG procedures performed by senior operator performed in the last 12 months <5 33 6-10 82 11-20 192 21-50 283 51-100 98 >100 26 39. Lower digestive tract therapeutic endoscopic procedures performed by senior operator in last 12 months <5 11 6-10 8 11-20 17 21-50 43 51-100 51 >100 104 40. ERCP procedure performed by senior operator in the last 12 months <5 47 6-10 9 11-20 6 21-50 43 51-100 91 >100 177 41. Senior operating endoscopist attended a formal sedation techniques course Yes 645 No 723 Not answered 450 42. Availability of consultant supervising operator A. In, or came to the operating/endoscopy room during the procedure 92 B. In the operating/endoscopy unit but not directly involved with the case 84 C. Available in the hospital, not present in the operating/endoscopy unit 186 D. Not in the hospital but was available by phone 40 E. Other 4 Not answered 100 Sedation and monitoring (back to top) 43. Forms of sedation and analgesia used during the procedure (may be multiple) A. None 68 B. Local anaesthesia 426 C. Intravenous opiate sedation 314 Drug used 315 Total dose 302 D. Intravenous benzodiazepine sedation 1,237 Drug used 1,406 Total dose 1,372 E. Other intravenous sedation 83 Drug used 55 Total dose 27 Not answered 311 44. Naloxone or Flumazenil A. Naloxone 7 B. Flumazenil 158 C. Naloxone and Flumazenil 18 Not answered 1,635 45. Patient monitors used (Answers may be multiple) A. Pulse oximetry 1,668 B. ECG 384 C. Automatic non-invasive blood pressure 729 D. Manual non-invasive blood pressure 120 E. Invasive blood pressure 76 F. CVP 147 G. None of the above 16 46. Oxygen administered during the procedure Yes 1,584 No 88 Not answered 146 47. Patient monitoring responsibility (Answers may be multiple) A. A qualified nurse 1,439 B. The operator 166 C. An anaesthetist 193 D. Another doctor 33 E. A radiographer 0 F. An operating department assistant 10 G. A support worker/health care worker 3 H. Not known 12 Not answered 111 48. Monitoring chart for the procedure in the patient’s notes Yes 807 No 761 Not answered 250 49. Critical incidents during the procedure (Answers may be multiple) A. None 1,439 B. Cardiac arrest 8 C. Respiratory arrest 5 D. Hypoxaemia (SpO2 90% or less) 72 E. Pulmonary aspiration 1 F. Hypotension (systolic less than 100mm Hg) 63 G. Tachycardia (more than 100 beats per minute) 86 H. Local haemorrhage 41 I. Viscus perforation 5 J. Other 24 Not answered 130 Post-endoscopy complications (back to top) 50. Complications/events in the 30 days after the procedure (Answers may be multiple) A. None 340 B. Viscus perforation 41 C. Upper or lower bowel haemorrhage 206 D. Subsequent related operation 67 E. Cardiac problems 241 F. Respiratory problems 603 G. Hepatic failure 127 H. Renal failure 177 I. Sepsis 317 J. Progress of medical condition 521 K. Stroke 57 L. Electrolyte imbalance 64 M. Haematological problems 45 N. Other 105 Not answered 162 51. Date of death Date of death 1,818 52. Death reported to the coroner Yes 442 No 1,212 Not answered 164 52a. If yes, coroner’s post-mortem examination performed Yes 131 No 285 Not answered 26 52b. If no, hospital post-mortem performed Yes 13 No 901 Not answered 298 53. System(s) implicated in the patient’s death (Answers may be multiple) A. Cardiovascular 586 B. Respiratory 935 C. Renal 266 D. Hepatic 329 E. Central nervous system 436 F. Not answered 279 54. Cause of death (according to the death certificate) 1(a) 1,269 1(b) 771 1(c) 201 2 441 Cause of death - no certificate 436 55. Department of the endoscopist hold audit/morbidity/mortality meetings Yes 1,063 No 527 Not answered 228 55a. Case considered at an audit/mortality/morbidity meeting Yes 359 No 1,001 Not answered 458 55b. If no, case will be considered Yes 197 No 791 Not answered 13 56. Problems obtaining the patient notes Yes 231 No 1,453 Not answered 134 56a. If yes, number of weeks to get notes 1- 10 165 11 -20 22 21-30 8 31-40 1 <40 3 Not answered 32 57. Position of person completing questionnaire where not the senior operating endoscopist (multiple answers) A. Chair of the department/lead clinician for endoscopy 731 B. Duty consultant 134 C. Non-consultant career grade 55 D. Trainee 36 E. Other 58 (back to top)  ");sQ1[79]=new Array("supplement.data.b.htm","Data Supplement - Upper Gastrointestinal","","Data Supplement INTRODUCTION A. GASTROINTESTINAL THERAPEUTIC ENDOSCOPY STUDY B. UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL DILATION AND TUBAL PROSTHESIS STUDY n = number of cases where information was provided  B. UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL DILATION AND TUBAL PROSTHESIS STUDY 1. Age 10-19 12 20-29 37 30-39 107 40-49 204 50-59 445 60-69 606 70-79 827 80-89 566 90-99 103 Not answered 38 2. Sex Male 1,603 Female 1,323 Not answered 19 3. Operation - OPCS codes (Answers may be multiple) G15.2 860 G15.3 896 G15.4 320 G18.2 11 G18.3 137 G18.4 9 G44.1 242 G44.3 548 4. ASA Status 1 634 2 957 3 806 4 226 5 0 Not answered 322 5. Underlying condition Malignant 1,052 Benign 1,784 Not answered 109 6. Specialty of most senior operator A. General physician 158 B. Specialised GI physician 1,497 C. General surgeon 164 D. Specialised GI surgeon 714 E. Radiologist 90 F. General Practitioner 23 G. Nurse Endoscopist 10 H. Other Thoracic Surgeon 211  ENT 48  Paediatrics 1  Not specified 9 Not answered 20 7. Grade of most senior operator A. Consultant 2,453 B. Associate specialist 73 C. Staff Grade 63 D. Clinical assistant/hospital practitioner 17 E. General practitioner 13 F. Nurse endoscopist 11 G. SpR – post CCST 46 H. SpR – year 3+ 197 I. SpR – year 1/2 41 J SHO 9 9 K. Other 4 Not answered 18 8. Analgesia/anaesthesia used during the procedure A. None 22 B. Topical local anaesthetic 887 C. Intravenous sedation 1,605 D. General anaesthesia 405 Not answered 26 9. X-ray screening Yes 970 No 1,719 Not answered 256 10. Method of dilating oesophagus (Answers may be multiple) A. None 369 B. Graduated Bougie 1,370 C. Forced pneumatic balloon 193 D. General anaesthesia 869 11. Problems encountered during the procedure (Answers may be multiple) A. Perforated oesophagus followed by surgery 12 B. Perforated oesophagus followed by medical treatment 18 C. Oesophageal haemorrhage during or within 48 hours of procedure 10 D. Cardiac arrest during or within 48 hours of procedure 1 E. Respiratory arrest during or within 48 hours of procedure 1 F. Pulmonary aspiration during or within 48 hours of procedure 1 G. Chest infection during or within 48 hours of procedures 1 H. Sepsis secondary to procedure 0 Not answered 2,900 11. Problems encountered within 48 hours of procedure (Answers may be multiple) A. Perforated oesophagus followed by surgery 35 B. Perforated oesophagus followed by medical treatment 19 C. Oesophageal haemorrhage during or within 48 hours of procedure 4 D. Cardiac arrest during or within 48 hours of procedure 3 E. Respiratory arrest during or within 48 hours of procedure 3 F. Pulmonary aspiration during or within 48 hours of procedure 4 G. Chest infection during or within 48 hours of procedures 6 H. Sepsis secondary to procedure 3 Not answered 2,872 12. Patient died within 48 hours of procedure Yes 20 No 2,665 Unknown 143 Not answered 117 (back to top)  ");sQ1[80]=new Array("supplement.intro.htm","Data Supplement - Introduction","","Data Supplement INTRODUCTION A. GASTROINTESTINAL THERAPEUTIC ENDOSCOPY STUDY B. UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL DILATION AND TUBAL PROSTHESIS STUDY n = number of cases where information was provided  DATA SUPPLEMENT INTRODUCTION This data supplement should be read in conjunction with the 2004 NCEPOD Report, 'Scoping our practice' (The 2004 Report of the National Confidential Enquiry into Patient Outcome and Death. NCEPOD. London, 2004). The question numbers in the supplement correspond to those in the questionnaires with which the data were collected. Where a question is omitted from the supplement, the information collected for this field was in the form of free text. Requests for further information should be addressed to: NCEPOD Epworth House 25 City Road London EC1Y 1AA Tel: 020 7920 0999 Fax: 020 7920 0997 Website: www.ncepod.org.uk Contents A. Data counts – Gastrointestinal Therapeutic Endoscopy Study B. Data counts – Upper Gastrointestinal Dilation and Tubal Prosthesis Study Questionnaires (back to top)  ");sQ1[81]=new Array("training.appropriate.htm","7. Training and Education - Appropriate Endoscopist","","7. Training and Education INTRODUCTION ENDOSCOPY PROFICIENCY APPROPRIATE ENDOSCOPIST SEDATION TRAINING SUPERVISION CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  APPROPRIATE ENDOSCOPIST The issues relating to proficiency and competency in endoscopic skills have been discussed in the context of training and revalidation. The advisors assessed whether the endoscopist was of an appropriate grade and had the correct experience for the related therapeutic procedure (Table 16). These assessments were based on the seniority of the endoscopist, the number of similar cases done in the last year, and the type and complexity of the procedure. Table 16. Grade and experience of endoscopist  Appropriate grade (%) Appropriate experience (%) Yes 1,641 (94) 1,507 (91) No 27 (2) 49 (3) Undecided 26 (2) 43 (2) Senior endoscopists also present 47 (3) 58 (4) Sub-total 1,741 1,657 Insufficient information to assess 73 154 Not answered 4 7 Total 1,818 1,818 Key point In over 90% of cases the grade and experience of the endoscopist was appropriate for the type of procedure. In 94% (1,641/1,741) of cases, where the question was answered, the grade of the endoscopist was appropriate for the type and complexity of the procedure. In addition, in 3% (47/1,741) of cases a more senior endoscopist was present. In 27 cases the advisors judged that the grade of operator was not appropriate. The cases were a mixture of procedures and degree of urgency. In 22 cases the supervising consultant was in the hospital. Consultants should not expect members of their team to perform procedures beyond their competence and trainees must be encouraged to seek help when cases are more difficult than they were expecting. The experience of the endoscopist was appropriate in 91% (1,507/1,657) of cases where the information was provided. There were 49 cases where the advisors considered the experience of the operator not appropriate. In 14 of the 49 cases the operator was a consultant and the operator gave their specialty as a specialised GI physician or surgeon in 35. Some of the 49 procedures were urgent or emergency upper GI endoscopies. Others were PEG insertions in sick patients graded ASA 4. Doctors should be aware that in some circumstances even consultants may not possess all the experience necessary and that it may be wise to consult a colleague. Case Study  A patient with decompensated alcoholic liver disease was endoscoped by a first-year specialist registrar who was unable to control bleeding from varices with sclerotherapy. After inserting a Minnesota tube the gastric balloon was inflated with 250 ml of air. Immediately on inflating the oesophageal balloon the patient developed cardiac arrest (pulseless electrical activity). Although oesophageal rupture is a possibility, the patient should have received at least a fluid challenge in view of the previous blood loss. No autopsy was performed. This case illustrates the potential problems associated with an inexperienced doctor attempting therapeutic endoscopy in an immediately life threatening situation, and using a potentially life saving device incorrectly. (back to top)  ");sQ1[82]=new Array("training.endoscopyproficiency.htm","7. Training and Education - Endoscopy Proficiency","","7. Training and Education INTRODUCTION ENDOSCOPY PROFICIENCY APPROPRIATE ENDOSCOPIST SEDATION TRAINING SUPERVISION CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  ENDOSCOPY PROFICIENCY 74% (1,312/1,773) of the procedures performed in this sample were by experienced consultant endoscopists. Despite this fact, some were only doing a few procedures a year (Table 15). Table 15. Number of procedures by endoscopist in the study period 2002-2003 Number of procedures performed PEG ERCP Upper GI Lower GI <5 12 0 4 1 6-10 65 0 10 0 11-20 163 1 46 3 21-50 245 22 124 9 51-100 84 60 126 23 >100 19 119 431 10 Sub-total 588 202 741 46 Not answered 131 35 68 7 Total 719 237 809 53 The number of procedures performed does not necessarily equate to competency, however it would seem unlikely that fewer than 20 procedures in a year is sufficient to remain proficient and skilled. Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy (OGD) is a common diagnostic and therapeutic procedure. Thus it was surprising that 184 responses indicated that some endoscopists were doing a maximum of only 50 upper GI endoscopies a year. However, this may be an over estimate of clinicians undertaking few procedures, as some endoscopists would have had several patients in this study. The Joint Advisory Group (JAG) guidelines1 on training in diagnostic upper GI endoscopy state that trainees should carry out at least 200 diagnostic examinations within the course of a year. Although there may be a finite number of PEGs to insert in any one Trust, of the PEGs inserted in this study, 41% were performed by endoscopists who did fewer than 20 PEGs a year. This is likely to be insufficient to maintain competency. ERCP and the associated techniques provide the greatest challenge for any endoscopist. It is important to question whether 50 procedures are sufficient to maintain skills? The JAG guidelines on training in endoscopy state that trainees should carry out at least 100 ERCPs a year under supervision and achieve a 90% success rate in cannulating the desired bile duct; the document notes that most trainees need to perform twice this number to achieve competence. The advisors felt that as the numbers of endoscopies are increasing, and there is potential for consultant expansion, the BSG should recommend guidelines for continuing competency in endoscopy and that these include a minimum number of procedures to be performed each year. (back to top)  ");sQ1[83]=new Array("training.intro.htm","7. Training and Education - Introduction","","7. Training and Education INTRODUCTION ENDOSCOPY PROFICIENCY APPROPRIATE ENDOSCOPIST SEDATION TRAINING SUPERVISION CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  7. TRAINING AND EDUCATION INTRODUCTION The acquisition of skills has an established broad research base. The acquisition of endoscopic skills involves knowledge, psychomotor development and technical awareness. Traditionally endoscopy was taught as a 'hands on' procedure, by an experienced endoscopist on a one-to-one basis. Initially, experience was related to the number of procedures. Training, however, was very variable and several courses were established in the United Kingdom by dedicated doctors who were both skilled enthusiastic endoscopists and well motivated teachers. The British Society for Gastroenterology (BSG) has been instrumental in developing training programmes for endoscopy – in league with the relevant Royal Colleges and specialist societies1. Interestingly, despite the specific recommendations for training2 3 4 5, there is no specific guidance about skill maintenance especially the number of techniques needed to remain proficient6 7. The BSG recommends that endoscopists should have a professional commitment to two or more endoscopy sessions per week8. This is extremely important in the era of revalidation and clinical governance, especially as endoscopic complications are directly related to inadequate and inappropriate training – and not all endoscopists have received correct training5 9 10 11 . (back to top)  ");sQ1[84]=new Array("training.profdevelopment.htm","7. Training and Education - Continued Professinal Development","","7. Training and Education INTRODUCTION ENDOSCOPY PROFICIENCY APPROPRIATE ENDOSCOPIST SEDATION TRAINING SUPERVISION CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) The educational importance of audit in CPD has been extolled by the Royal Colleges15 16 . Regular review of patient management will improve the standard of care, and reduce morbidity and mortality. In particular, this is true where current practice can be compared with specific guidelines. Surgery is well versed in this area, but peer review audit of endoscopic practice is uncommon in the United Kingdom. Using data from the individual patient questionnaires, no answer was given in 458 cases. Therefore of the 1,360 cases, 78% (1,063/1,360) of procedures were performed in hospitals that held endoscopy audit meetings which correlates well with the figure above. However only 26% (359/1,360) of cases had been reviewed at an audit meeting (Figure 8). Figure 8. Morbidity and mortality audit In 20% (197/1,001) of cases the person completing the questionnaire answered that the case would be reviewed at an audit meeting in the future. Overall a maximum of a third of all deaths following therapeutic endoscopy would have been subject to review. Audit is important for personal continuing professional development and for the improvement of endoscopy services within a Trust. All endoscopy units should run regular audit meetings within their clinical governance activities. A review of all deaths following endoscopy should be part of the programme for such audit meetings. (back to top)  ");sQ1[85]=new Array("training.recs.htm","7. Training and Education - Recommendations","","7. Training and Education INTRODUCTION ENDOSCOPY PROFICIENCY APPROPRIATE ENDOSCOPIST SEDATION TRAINING SUPERVISION CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  Recommendations There should be national guidelines for assuring continuing competency in endoscopy. All endoscopy units should perform regular audit and all deaths during, or within 30 days of, therapeutic endoscopy should be reviewed. All those responsible for the administration of sedation should have received formal training and assessment.  ");sQ1[86]=new Array("training.references.htm","7. Training and Education - References","","7. Training and Education INTRODUCTION ENDOSCOPY PROFICIENCY APPROPRIATE ENDOSCOPIST SEDATION TRAINING SUPERVISION CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Guidelines for the training, appraisal and assessment of trainees in GI endoscopy and for the assessment of units for registration and re-registration. Joint Advisory Group on gastrointestinal endoscopy. Joint Advisory Group, London, 2004. www.thejag.org.uk/JAG_2004.pdf 2 Cass OW, Freeman ML, Peine CJ, Zera RT, Onstad GR. Objective evaluation of endoscopy skills during training. Ann Intern Med. 1993; 118(1):40-4 3 Wexner SD, Garbus JE, Singh JJ. A prospective analysis of 13,580 colonoscopies. Reevaluation of credentialing guidelines. Surg Endosc 2001; 15(3):251-61 4 Freeman ML. Adverse outcomes of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography. Rev Gastroenterol Disord 2002; 2(4):147-68 5 Kowalski T, Kanchana T, Pungpapong S . Perceptions of gastroenterology fellows regarding ERCP competency and training. Gastroint Endosc 2003; 58(3):345-49 6 American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy. Renewal of endoscopic privileges: Guidelines for clinical application. Gastroint Endosc 1999; 49(6):823-25 7 American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy. Position statement: Maintaining competency in endoscopic skills. Gastroint Endsoc 1995; 42(6):620-21 8 The British Society of Gastroenterology. Report of a working party on the staffing of endoscopy units. London, 1987 9 Bowles CJ, Leicester R, Romaya C, Swarbrick E, Williams CB, Epstein O. A prospective study of colonoscopy practice in the UK: are we adequately prepared for national colorectal cancer screening tomorrow? Gut 2004; 53(2):277-83 10 Quine MA, Bell GD, McCloy RF, Matthews HR. Prospective audit of perforation rates following upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in two regions of England. Br J Surg 1995; 82(4):530-33 11 Allison MC, Ramanaden DN, Fouweather MG, Davis DK, Colin-Jones DG . Provision of ERCP services and training in the United Kingdom. Endoscopy 2000; 32(9):693-99 12 Bell GD, McCloy RF, Charlton JE, Campbell D, Dent NS, Gear MW, Logan RF, Swan CH. Recommendations for standards of sedation and patient monitoring during gastrointestinal endoscopy. Gut 1991; 32(7):823-27 13 Implementing and ensuring safe sedation practice for healthcare procedures in adults. UK Academy of Medical Royal Colleges, London, 2003. www.rcoa.ac.uk/docs/safesedationpractice.pdf 14 www.rcseng.ac.uk/surgical/gastro/courses_html 15 Good Medical Practice for Physicians. Royal College of Physicians of London, 2004. www.rcplondon.ac.uk/professional/cpd/CPDforUKphysicians.pdf 16 Good Surgical Practice. The Royal College of Surgeons of England, 2002. www.rcseng.ac.uk/services/publications/publications/index_html?pub_id=58 (back to top)  ");sQ1[87]=new Array("training.sedationtraining.htm","7. Training and Education - Sedation Training","","7. Training and Education INTRODUCTION ENDOSCOPY PROFICIENCY APPROPRIATE ENDOSCOPIST SEDATION TRAINING SUPERVISION CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  SEDATION TRAINING Key point Only 35% of endoscopists were known to have attended courses on safe sedation. Good, controlled, conscious sedation is often the key to a successful therapeutic endoscopy. Many of the drugs used can interfere with airway integrity and ventilation; thus it is important that endoscopists are appropriately trained in airway management and sedation skills. Of the 1,368 cases where we had a response 47% (645/1,368) of endoscopists had attended a course on sedation techniques, whilst 53% (723/1,368) had not done such a course. Many endoscopies are done following referral, and in these cases someone other than the endoscopist will have medically assessed the patient. The BSG 1991 guidelines for sedation12 recommend the use of a checklist to identify the medical risks. Such checklists are used in some centres and non-medical staff in the endoscopy units usually complete them. Nevertheless, the endoscopist needs to review the findings. Ultimately it is the responsibility of the person providing sedation to ensure they have training in sedation and know the risks and how to respond to them13. Training in sedation is part of the endoscopy skills courses run by the Royal College of Surgeons of England 14 and they also run courses on safe sedation for non-anaesthetists. Other than these, there appear to be few courses in sedation available for the endoscopist. The guidelines of the UK Academy of Medical Royal Colleges recommend that each hospital should appoint two consultants (one an anaesthetist and the other a user of sedation from another speciality) to lead and support implementation of their recommendations on sedation at hospital level. These consultants should be able to review sedation practices within their Trust, identify deficiencies in sedation training in colleagues and trainees, and respond to them. Of the 71% (1,244/1,760) of cases where sedation was given (58 were not answered), concerns were raised about the appropriateness of their practice in 218 patients (Table 17). The advisors made an assessment whether sedation was appropriate, and if not the reasons why. Their answers were based on the patient’s clinical condition, the type of procedure, and the type and amount of sedation and /or analgesia and there is no statistical significant difference between those who have attended a course and those who have not when considering poor practice. Table 17. Sedation training and the numbers and types of sedation problems in cases where concerns were raised about good practice Attended course Problem Yes No Sub-total Not answered Total Excess opiod 2 4 6 3 9 Excess benzodiazepine 44 58 102 30 132 Insufficient sedation 0 1 1 0 1 Excess opiod and benzodiazepine 8 5 13 2 15 Other 2 4 6 5 11 Sub-total 56 72 128 40 168 Not answered 20 19 39 11 50 Total 76 91 167 51 218 Considering that in 14% (218/1,579) of cases the sedation practice was questioned by advisors, and that these problems at times occurred even though the endoscopist had received sedation training, it is felt that the issue of sedation training should be reviewed regardless of whether clinicians have attended a course or not. (back to top)  ");sQ1[88]=new Array("training.supervision.htm","7. Training and Education - Supervision","","7. Training and Education INTRODUCTION ENDOSCOPY PROFICIENCY APPROPRIATE ENDOSCOPIST SEDATION TRAINING SUPERVISION CONTINUED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  SUPERVISION Correct supervision is essential for all training endoscopists1, irrespective of their grade (Table 18). In 45 cases this was not answered, therefore in 26% (461/1,773) of cases the most senior endoscopist was not a consultant. Supervision has to be tailored to the experience of the trainee, and their competence in a particular technique. In most cases, the more junior an endoscopist, the more supervision is required – unless a senior colleague is learning a new technique. Table 18. Location of supervising consultant when most senior endoscopist was not a consultant. Grade of operator In endoscopy room In unit but not in room Available in hospital Available by phone Other Sub-total Not answered Total SAS 10 18 79 7 4 118 32 150 General practitioner 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 7 Nurse practitioner 4 2 3 0 0 9 0 9 SpR post CCST 8 7 13 3 0 31 6 37 SpR year 3+ 32 40 73 25 0 170 33 203 SpR year 1/2 13 11 11 3 1 39 6 45 SHO 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 2 Other trainee 1 1 3 1 0 6 2 8 Sub-total 68 79 182 40 5 374 87 461 Not answered 2 1 3 1 0 7 38 45 Total 70 80 185 41 5 381 125 506 On most occasions (88%, 329/374), the supervising endoscopist was somewhere in the hospital during the procedure; either the endoscopy room (18%, 68/374), or the endoscopy unit (21%, 79/374), or elsewhere in the hospital (49%, 182/374). JAG guidelines1 do not define ‘supervision’ but it is difficult to teach a trainee if one is not present in the endoscopy room. Table 18 indicates that SHO and SpR year 1/2 trainees without a senior endoscopist in the room performed therapeutic procedures. The JAG guidelines1 should specify explicitly what level of supervision is acceptable for trainees performing endoscopic procedures. Endoscopy units should audit their practice to ensure that such junior trainees are competent to carry out therapeutic procedures independently. It is surprising that there was no response to this question where the senior endoscopist was a GP. It is our belief that a consultant should also supervise GPs undertaking endoscopies in hospitals. In the opinion of the advisors, supervision was inappropriate in four cases for the experience of the trainee endoscopist. All of these patients had presented with haematemesis and/or melaena – and senior support was not requested. Case Study  An elderly patient presented with melaena. The patient had a number of comorbidities, a haemoglobin less than 6 gm/dl, and was assessed as ASA 4. A senior specialist registrar year 3+ was unable to control the bleeding from two duodenal ulcers despite injection with adrenaline, 2 ml of 1 in 10,000 into each ulcer. No senior help was sought although a consultant was in the hospital. The patient died from continuing bleeding. (back to top)  ");sQ1[89]=new Array("tubeprosthesis.analgesia.htm","12. Upper Gastrointestinal dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion - Analgesia and Anaesthesia","","12. Upper Gastrointestinal Dilation and Tubal Prosthesis Insertion INTRODUCTION PROCEDURES AND PATIENTS SPECIALTY AND GRADE OF ENDOSCOPIST ANALGESIA AND ANAESTHESIA METHODS OF DIALTION, COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  ANALGESIA AND ANAESTHESIA Table 71. Analgesia and anaesthesia used for the procedure None LA Sedation GA Sub-total Not answered Total Flexible endoscopic dilation 18 728 1,252 202 2,200 17 2,217 Flexible endoscopic dilation followed by tubal prosthesis 0 17 41 6 64 0 64 Flexible endoscopic insertion of tubal prosthesis 4 136 294 56 490 6 496 Rigid endoscopic dilation 0 2 13 131 146 2 148 Rigid endoscopic dilation followed by tubal prosthesis 0 0 1 7 8 1 9 Endoscopic insertion of tubal prosthesis other than oesophagus 0 4 4 3 11 0 11 Total 22 887 1,605 405 2,919 26 2,945 *Local anaesthesia = topical local anaesthesia to the oropharynx. Although clinicians were invited to give multiple answers to the type of anaesthesia/analgesia used, interestingly, none did. It can only be assumed therefore that none used a combined topical local anaesthesia with either sedation or general anaesthesia. From Table 71, 58% (1,587/2,754) of the flexible endoscopic procedures were performed under sedation, 32% (881/2,754) under topical local anaesthesia and 10% (264/2,754) under a general anaesthetic. 9% (14/154) of the rigid endoscopic procedures were performed under sedation and 90% (138/154) under a general anaesthetic. The high use of general anaesthesia for rigid endoscopic procedures may reflect the discomfort of the technique which is being used mainly by thoracic and ENT surgeons on lists with an attendant anaesthetist. (back to top)  ");sQ1[90]=new Array("tubeprosthesis.dilationmethods.htm","12. Upper Gastrointestinal dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion - Methods of Dilation","","12. Upper Gastrointestinal Dilation and Tubal Prosthesis Insertion INTRODUCTION PROCEDURES AND PATIENTS SPECIALTY AND GRADE OF ENDOSCOPIST ANALGESIA AND ANAESTHESIA METHODS OF DIALTION, COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH Methods of dilation Complications Death RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  METHODS OF DILATION, COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH Key points X-ray control was used in 63% of procedures that included a tubal prosthesis insertion. Oesophageal perforation during or within 48 hours occurred in 2.8% of cases. Death within 48 hours occurred in 0.7% of cases. Methods of dilation Table 72. Methods of dilation of the oesophagus Method of dilation Total (%) Graduated bougie 1,362 (49) Forced pneumatic balloon 191 (7) Through the endoscope balloon 861 (31) Two methods used 9 (<1) None 369 (13) Sub-total 2,792 Not answered 153 (5) Total 2,945 Table 73. X-ray screening for the types of procedure Type of procedure Yes No Sub-total Not answered Total Flexible endoscopic dilation 569 1,458 2,027 190 2,217 Flexible endoscopic dilation followed by tubal prosthesis 34 19 53 11 64 Flexible endoscopic insertion of tubal prosthesis 320 153 473 23 496 Rigid endoscopic dilation 36 82 118 30 148 Rigid endoscopic dilation followed by tubal prosthesis 5 4 9 0 9 Endoscopic insertion of tubal prosthesis other than oesophagus 6 3 9 2 11 Total 970 1,719 2,686 256 2,945 As seen in Table 73, X-ray screening was used in 29% (603/2,080) of flexible endoscopic dilation procedures and in 63% (354/526) of procedures that included insertion of a tubal prosthesis. BSG guidelines recommend that radiographic screening is helpful when the stricture is tortuous or complex or associated with a large hiatus hernia or diverticulae, and when difficulty is encountered passing the guidewire1. NCEPOD advisors consider X-ray control mandatory for dilation using a guidewire if the endoscope cannot be passed into the stomach, i.e. the guidewire cannot be placed under direct vision. X-ray control was thought to be highly desirable for placement of a tubal prosthesis, and that not to use it is unwise. They also believe that X-ray control is not required for routine endoscopic oesophageal dilation if flexible tipped dilators are used. Complications (back to top) During the procedure 1.5% (45/2,945) of patients had one or more of the complications listed on the questionnaire (Table 74). Table 74. Complications during the procedure (answers may be multiple) Complication Total n = 45 Perforated oesophagus followed by surgery 12 Perforated oesophagus followed by medical treatment 18 Oesophageal haemorrhage 10 Cardio-respiratory arrest 1 Pulmonary aspiration 1 Chest infection 5 Sepsis 2 Total 49 In the 48 hour period after the procedure 2.5% (73/2,945) of patients had one or more of the complications listed on the questionnaire (Table 75). Table 75. Complications within 48 hours after the procedure (answers may be multiple) Complication Total n = 73 Perforated oesophagus followed by surgery 35 Perforated oesophagus followed by medical treatment 18 Oesophageal haemorrhage 4 Cardio-respiratory arrest 3 Respiratory arrest 3 Pulmonary aspiration 4 Chest infection 6 Sepsis 3 Total 76 The perforation rate for patients with malignant disease was 4.3% (45/1,052) and for benign disease 2% (35/1,784). Table 76. Dilation methods and oesophageal perforation during or within 48 hours of procedure Dilation method Total Perforation None 369 15 Graduated bougie 1,362 27 Forced pneumatic balloon 191 8 Through the endoscope balloon 861 21 Two methods used 9 0 Sub-total 2,792 71 Not answered 153 10 Total 2,945 81 In this study, a total of 2.8% (81/2,945) of patients suffered oesophageal perforation in association with upper GI dilation and/or insertion of oesophageal tubal prosthesis during or within 48 hours of the procedure (Table 76). There was a trend for oesophageal tubal prostheses without dilation and oesophageal dilation using a forced pneumatic balloon to be associated with a greater incidence of oesophageal perforation than the graduated bougie or through the endoscope method. The findings suggest that a larger national audit of specific techniques and equipment may be indicated. Death (back to top) Where the outcome was known, 0.7% (20/2,828) of patients died within 48 hours of the procedure (Table 77). Table 77. Dilation method and death Dilation method Died Survived Unknown Sub-total Not answered Total None 4 328 21 353 16 369 Graduated bougie 11 1,227 74 1,312 50 1,362 Forced pneumatic balloon 2 165 11 178 13 191 Through the endoscopic balloon 2 801 28 831 30 861 Two methods used 0 7 1 8 1 9 Sub-total 19 2,528 135 2,682 110 2,792 Not answered 1 137 8 146 7 153 Total 20 2,665 143 2,828 117 2,945 (back to top)  ");sQ1[91]=new Array("tubeprosthesis.intro.htm","12. Upper Gastrointestinal dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion - Introduction","","12. Upper Gastrointestinal Dilation and Tubal Prosthesis Insertion INTRODUCTION PROCEDURES AND PATIENTS SPECIALTY AND GRADE OF ENDOSCOPIST ANALGESIA AND ANAESTHESIA METHODS OF DIALTION, COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  12. UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL DILATION AND TUBAL PROSTHESIS INSERTION INTRODUCTION NCEPOD examined endoscopic upper gastrointestinal (GI) dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion in patients over a three-month period (Jan-Mar 2003), regardless of outcome. The primary aim was to determine the occurrence of common complications during and within 48 hours of the procedure. The follow-up time period of 48 hours was selected as it was thought that a longer follow-up would be onerous for busy departments, resulting in poor compliance. The complications for which information was sought were oesophageal perforation, oesophageal haemorrhage, cardiac or respiratory arrest, pulmonary aspiration, chest infection, sepsis related to the procedure and stroke. Secondary aims included determining the age, sex and physical status profile of patients, grade of operator, type of endoscope, anaesthesia or sedation used and the incidence of death. In 2004, after the data collection period, the British Society of Gastroenterology (BSG) produced guidelines on the use of oesophageal dilation in clinical practice1 and reference is made to these. (back to top)  ");sQ1[92]=new Array("tubeprosthesis.procedures.htm","12. Upper Gastrointestinal dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion - Procedures and Patients","","12. Upper Gastrointestinal Dilation and Tubal Prosthesis Insertion INTRODUCTION PROCEDURES AND PATIENTS SPECIALTY AND GRADE OF ENDOSCOPIST ANALGESIA AND ANAESTHESIA METHODS OF DIALTION, COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  PROCEDURES AND PATIENTS Key point 94% of all endoscopic oesophageal dilations and/or tubal prosthesis insertions were performed using a flexible endoscope. Questionnaires were completed for 2,945 cases. The procedures identified are presented in Table 67. Table 67. Procedure type  Total (%) Flexible endoscopic dilation 2,217 (75) Flexible endoscopic dilation followed by tubal prosthesis 64 (2) Flexible endoscopic insertion of tubal prosthesis 496 (17) Rigid endoscopic dilation 148 (5) Rigid endoscopic dilation followed by tubal prosthesis 9 (<1) Endoscopic insertion of tubal prosthesis other than oesophagus 11 (<1) Total 2,945 In total, 94% (2,777/2,945) of all endoscopic oesophageal dilations and or tubal prosthesis were performed using a flexible endoscope and only 5% (157/2,945) using a rigid endoscope and for 11 the type of endoscope was not known. There is no evidence as to the safest method and the use of a flexible or rigid endoscope is related to the personal preference and training of the endoscopist. Whether the underlying condition was benign or malignant is presented in Table 68. Table 68. Underlying condition  Total (%) Benign 1,784 (63) Malignant 1,052 (37) Sub-total 2,836 Not answered 109 (4) Total 2,945 It is recognised that complications are less common after dilation of benign strictures, compared to malignant ones2. The age distribution is presented in Figure 19 and 51% of patients were aged 70 years or older. Figure 19. Age distribution The sex distribution of cases, where provided, was 45% (1,323/2,926) male and 55% (1,603/2,926) female and 19 were not answered. The physical status of the patient (ASA) is presented in Figure 20. Figure 20. ASA status 11% (322/2,945) of those that responded were unable to provide an ASA status for the patient, despite ASA status being defined on the questionnaire. This is perhaps not surprising since surgeons and anaesthetists have used this classification for many years, but physicians have not and many may not be familiar with it. (back to top)  ");sQ1[93]=new Array("tubeprosthesis.recs.htm","12. Upper Gastrointestinal dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion - Recommendation","","12. Upper Gastrointestinal Dilation and Tubal Prosthesis Insertion INTRODUCTION PROCEDURES AND PATIENTS SPECIALTY AND GRADE OF ENDOSCOPIST ANALGESIA AND ANAESTHESIA METHODS OF DIALTION, COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  Recommendation A national audit across all specialties of specific techniques and equipment that is used for upper GI dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion is indicated.  ");sQ1[94]=new Array("tubeprosthesis.references.htm","12. Upper Gastrointestinal dilation and tubal prosthesis insertion - References","","12. Upper Gastrointestinal Dilation and Tubal Prosthesis Insertion INTRODUCTION PROCEDURES AND PATIENTS SPECIALTY AND GRADE OF ENDOSCOPIST ANALGESIA AND ANAESTHESIA METHODS OF DIALTION, COMPLICATIONS AND DEATH RECOMMENDATIONS CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  REFERENCES 1 Riley SA, Attwood SE. Guidelines on the use of oesophageal dilatation in clinical practice. Gut, 2004; 53 Suppl 1:i1-6 2 Quine MA, Bell GD, McCloy RF, Charlton JE, Devlin HB, Hopkins A. Prospective audit of upper gastrointestinal endoscopy in two regions of England: safety, staffing and sedation methods. Gut 1995; 36(3):462-7  ");sQ1[95]=new Array("acknowledge.htm","Acknowledgements","","");sQ1[96]=new Array("introduction.htm","1.Introduction - Introduction","","1. Introduction INTRODUCTION CHAPTER REFERENCES n = number of cases where information was provided  1. INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION The original gastrointestinal endoscopes were hollow reeds or bamboo canes that were illuminated by candles. These developments have been attributed to both the ancient Greeks and the Egyptians. However, the precise origin of endoscopy remains in doubt although Hippocrates was responsible for the first proctoscopy recorded in 370 BC. The subsequent development was slow. The next major advancement was the rigid sigmoidoscope in 1795 by Bozzini, followed by the rigid oesophagoscope in 1868 by Kussaiaul. These instruments were very primitive in comparison with those in use today, and only allowed a limited examination. One of the major limitations was a suitable light source but this was overcome, in part, by Edison in 1890 who was able to make bulbs small enough to use inside the endoscope. This was followed by the discovery that glass fibres could transmit light by Baird in 1928. The other limitation was scope rigidity. A ‘semi-flexible’ gastroscope was developed in 1932, followed in 1950 by the ‘gastrocamera’. This was superseded in 1957 by the flexible gastroscope developed by Hirchowitz and in 1963 the flexible sigmoidoscope developed by Overholt, both using optical fibres to connect the distal image lens to the proximal viewing lens that magnified the image for the endoscopist. Diagnostic endoscopy was now a viable, valuable, clinical procedure. The only omission was full colonoscopy, which finally occurred in 1971 and was performed by Deyhle. Crucial, rapid developments included channels through the length of the scope that would allow air injection to distend the lumen, suction (to remove secretions), a water jet to clean the image lens, and mucosal biopsies. The potential of the biopsy channel was exploited rapidly, and numerous therapeutic procedures followed – including the first snare polpectomy by Niwa in 1970, and the first sphincterotomy for common bile duct stones in 1974. The construction of the endoscope ensured that only the endoscopist saw mucosal images, and trainees could only view the image by adding a teaching aid to the endoscope. However, this resulted in a poor view of the mucosa for both teacher and trainee, and significantly increased the weight of the endoscope. The development of video endoscopy by Welch-Allyn in 1983, produced high resolution images that ensured the territory previously the domain of the endoscopist could be seen by trainees, assistants, and observers. The aim of this study is to improve the quality of therapeutic gastrointestinal endoscopy services in the future by critically appraising information from the notes of patients who have died during or following endoscopy. It is hoped that the intended benefits will include: • fewer inappropriate procedures • lower morbidity and mortality • improved training • recognition of poor performance • reduced litigation • better data collection. Therapeutic gastrointestinal (GI) endoscopy is a common procedure. From Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) it has been established that in NHS hospitals in England, Wales and Northern Ireland in 2002/03 approximately 136,000 such procedures were performed1. Deaths reported following these procedures represented 3% of cases and it is therefore important that data in this report are taken in context. As a guide the mortality data for the four different GI therapeutic endoscopies covered in this report is summarised in Table 1. These figures have been calculated using data obtained from Hospital Episode Statistics (HES), which includes NHS data from Trusts in England only. However, this is representative of the majority (94%) of the data obtained from England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Table 1. Mortality data for therapeutic endoscopies – 2002/03 Procedure type Number of deaths Total number of procedures Mortality % PEG 986 16,648 6 ERCP 381 23,606 2 Upper GI 2,200 47,931 5 Lower GI 102 40,378 <1 Total 3,669 128,563 3 Legend PEG = Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy ERCP = Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography Anecdotally, it is believed that there is a significant amount of under-reporting of procedures, as many take place in an outpatient setting and these data are not recorded as part of the HES dataset; hence mortality may be overestimated. In addition, deaths following discharge from hospital are not captured by HES and this would tend to lead to an underestimate of mortality. These factors are both likely to affect the quoted mortality rates. 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